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A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.

For Description and Working Drawings to Scale, See Page 24

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AMATEUR WORK,

ILLUSTRATED.

EDITED BY THE AUTHOR OF

"EVERY MAN HIS OWN MECHANIC."

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WITH LITHOGRAPHIC SUPPLEMENTS,

Containing Resigns, §kcichcs, nno forking gratoings,

AND

FIVE HUNDRED WOOD ENGRAVINGS IN THE TEXT.

Or. /.

Iionbon :

WARD, LOCK, & Co., WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C. igeto |9orft: i0, bond street.

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INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

Bar, horizontal, and frame, 502, £03

Barometer, cistern, 14S

Barometer, siphon, 143

Barometer, stationary cistern, 149

Bath for sensitising solution, 57

Battery, Leclanehe, the, 415

Bell, electric, chattering, with all parts to- gether, 323

Bell, electric, parts of an, 322, 323

Bell, electric, plan of common form of, 322

Bell, electric, position of parts of, 367

Bell, electric, pushes for, 518

Bell, electric, switches for, 519

Bell, electric, wires and connections of, 450, 451

Bench, German carpenter's, 430

Bench, shoemaker's, 29

Bench, wood-carver's, 275

Bench-lathe, 65

Blowpipe for inflating skins of caterpillars, 165

Blowpipes, amateur's, 273

Boards, bevelling for junctions, 338

Boat, life, plan of, 326

Boat, life, rowlock for, 327

Boat, life, side of carriage for, 327

Boat, Norwegian fishing, 483

Boit, Norwegian, sections of, 486

Boat, outline of section in wire, 180

Boat, section of keel of a, 180

Boat, stem of a, 180

Eook, groove and rounded hack of, 3C3

Bookbinder's work-tub, 362

Bookbinding, specimens of old, 247

Bookcase, home-made, 459

Bookcases, metal fittings for, 286

Bookshelves, hanging, and drawer, 230

Bookshelves, hanging, details of, 231

Boot, hand-sewn, inner sole of a, 299

Boot, hand- sewn, with welt sewn in, 299

Eoot, lasting a, 85

Brace, American drill, 96

Bracket for modelling in clay, 60

Brackets, wall, for corners, 137

Brush, wire, scratch, 10

Brushes, scratch, 205

Burner, low temperature, 184

Burner, solid flame, 184

Bust, pot-lid in mould for, 390

Cabinet, hanging wall, details of, 25

Cabinet, skeleton wall, details of, 177

Camera, dark slide for a, 303

Camera, sliding body, 32

Camera, section of, 32

Canoe, cleat for a, 227

Canoe, mainmast and sail for a, 227

Canoe, mizenmast and sail for a, 227

Canoe, paddle for a, 227

Canoe, rib of a, 227

Canoe, rudder for a, 227

Canoe, sections of a, 226

Canoe, shape of stem in, 181

Canoe, stem, keel, and sections of on bench,

181 Casting in plaster, tools for, 387 Catch, simple, for box, 386 Chair, Elizabethan, in carved oak, 306 Chair, home made, 458 Chair, old-fashioned, to strengthen leg of,

350 Chest of drawers in miniature, 68 Chest of drawers, details of, 67, 69 Chisel-shaped tool, for modelling, 12 Cistern, rain-water, 35 Clamp, bench, Murphy's, 144 Clay, applying to figure drawn on slab, 61 Clay, badly applied, 60 Clay, brackets modelled in, 108, 109 Clay, building up ed^e with, 60 Clay, diagram showing how to avoid burr

on edge of, 107 Clay, making small roll of, 60 Clay, patterns for modelling in, 156, 157 Clay, properly applied, 63 Clcck, common Dutch or German, 153 Clock, hall, movements of a, 77 Clock, Henry de Wyck's, 76 Clock-making, tools for, 152 Clocks, escapements of, 403 Clothes, folding horse for, 375 Clothes, rack for, 375 Cork-borer, a, 133 Corner cupboard, handy, 145 Crucible for charcoal, 131 Crucible, iron, simple, for charcoal, 291 Crwths, ancient, 72, 73 Cupboard, handy corner, 145 Cyanide solution, method of pouring out, 172

Dark lantern, home-made, 418 Dark room, plans and sections of n, 120, 121 Dark slide, shutter for, 303 Dark tent, the, 121 Desk, home-made, standing, 350 *'■ Diaper work for casting, 391 Dining room, sideboard for the, 49 Drawers, miniature chest of, 68 Drawers, details of, 67, 69 Drawings, working, appliances for produc- ing, 8 Drill brace, American, 96

Echolin, Collins's, 506 Electric bell, see Bell, electric Electro-plating, amateur's plant for, 97 Electro-plating, buffing wheel for, 262 Electro-plating, burnishers for, 263 Electro-plating, Daniell battery for, 80 Electro-plating, Walker battery for, 81

Fan-screen, method of putting together, 434

Fiddles, ancient patterns of, 72, 73

Filter, cask, 223

Filter, kitchen, 132

Filter, large compound, 133

Filter, ornamental, 133

Filter, photographic, stand for, 57

Filter, pocket, 222

Filter, tap, 222

Filter, tap, stirrup for, 222

Floors, designs for decorating, 243 ,

Folder at work, 362

Foot, diagram of measurements of a, 29

Forge, charcoal, for brazing band-saws, 315

Fountain, self-acting pneumatic, 144

Fountain, self-acting, Rushton's, 383

Fret-sawing machine, simple, 37

Fret-sawing, machines for, 500

Furnace, draft muffle, 185

Furnace injector, 185

Furnace ladle, 185

Gas-fitting, minor fittings for, 293 ■ Gas-fitting, sundries for, 411 Gas-fitting, taps for, 410 Gas-fitting, tongs for, 411 Gas-fitting, tools for, 196 Gas-fitting, unions and fittings for, 197

■•

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS.

Gas-tongs, illustration of using, 295 Giant Stride, elevation of, 370 Giant Stride, section of top of, 370 Gigue, ancient, 72

Greenhouse, .section of rafter for, 1£3 Grinding, tool holders for, 20, 21 Guards, insertion of, in biudn:g, :JG3 Gun, duck, arrangement for a, 479 Gymnasium, lawn, '102

Haemorrhage, methods of checking, 101 . Hail-clock, movement of a, 77

Hammer, binder's, 470

Handle, the drop, 308

Harmonium, bellows of, 339, 511

Harmonium, case of, 339

Harmonium, feeders for, 339

Harmonium, interior of, 339

Harmonium, sound-board for, 514

Hexagon, construction of a, 159

Hive, cheap bar-frame, sections of, 112, 113

Hive, details of, 113 ■ Hoops, how to fix on tubs, 44

Horizontal Oar and frame, 502, 503

Horse, clothes-, new form of, 4-S2

Jar, deflagrating. 131 Joint-stool, old, 307

Keyboard, organ, details of, for making,

466, wi

Loat&Cty dark, home-made, 418

Lathe, an amateur's plain, 4

Lathe, ""bench, f5

Lathe, double-gear gnp-bed, 5

Latue, poppit-head of a, 423

Lathe, scratch- brush, 205

Lathe, screw-cutting, with overhead gear, 5

Lathe, single-speed gap-bed, 5

Lathes, headstocks and mandrels of, 200, 201

Lawn gymnasium, the, 402

Light, electric, cells for, 355

Light, electric, lamp for, 354, 463

Light, electric, method of connecting 355

'463 ; Le'clanchd' battery, the, 415

Machine, circular and band-saw, combined,

314 Machine, simple fret-sawing, 37 Measure, spring tape, 169 Metals, use of hand-turning tools for, 251 Modelling, stand for, 12 Modelling, tools for, 12, 13 Modelling, turn-table for, 12

Nuta, manufacture of, for model engines 510, 511

Organ, Atiwigement of pipes, 2 JO Organ, bellows for a small, 5 J, 53 Organ, bel owp, details of, 53 ■ , design for a small, L21

Organ, front elevation of a small, 176 Organ, pedals for a small, 220 Organ, pipes of a small, 16 Organ, scale for pipes of a small, 190 Organ, sound-board of an, 116, 117 Organs, springs for an, 117 Org;in, stop action in a small, 431 Organ, wind-chest of a small, 116

Panels, carved, for modelling, 216, 217

Perambulator, a home-made, 443

Perambulator, details of, 443

Percolator, Buck's patent, 447

Photography, the plate and its accessories, 419

Picture-frame vice, patent, 144

Pipes, sections of, 16, 2S7

Pipes, organ, shortened, 287

Pliers, clock-maker's, 152

Plough, and cutting-knife, the, 515

Plumb and level, 189

Polygons, a scale for, 334

Polygons, diagrams showing how to con- struct, 235

Press, binder's, home-made, 515

Press, printing, the " Model," 3s2

Press, sewing, 470, 471

Rain-water, tanks for collecting and storing,

447 Refrigerator, home-made, 338 Room, dark, plans and sections of a, 120,

121

Saw, band, American foot-power, 316

Saw, band, forge for brazing, 315

Saw, band, hand or steam, 315

Saw, band, hand power, 213

Saw, band, hand-power attachment, 314

Saw, band, small foot-power, 3'5

Saw, circular, hand-power, 212

Saw, circular, fences for, 315

Saws, positions of file in sharpening, 501

Screw-driver, clock-maker's, 152

Screw-drivers, small, for watch-makers, 48

Sewing books, method of, 470

Sewing stand, home-made, 515

Shoemaker's bench, the, 29

Sideboard, a dining-room, 49

Sideboard made from two old chests, 351

Slide rest, compound, 64

Sole, diagram of a, 84

Stained glass, designs for, 55

Stand, portable photographic, 33

Stand, portable, folded up, 33

Stand, studio, 33

Starrett's combination try-square and level,

48 Strings, violin, tests for, 439 Summer-house, plan and elevation of, 270,

271 Sui-dial for wall, 22 Swing, garden, frame and boat of 266, 267

Swing, portable, 474

Swing, portable, stake to hold guys of, 475

Sycamore trunk, section of, 168

Table, eight-legged, 307

Table, Jacobean, in carved oak, 306

Table, simple home-made, 455, 453

Table, three-legged occasional, a, 128, 129

Table, to strengthen le* of, 350

Telephone, amateur's, in section, 342

Telephone, Bell's, 343

Telephones, bells for, 495

Telephones, cells for, 495

Telephones, stations for, 495

Tent, the dark, 121

Three-legged occasional table, a, 128, 129

Timepiece, Queen Anne, 497

Tin cans, new uses for old, 273

Bird houses, 278

Bread-grater, 278

Flower-stand, 279

Hanging flower-pot, 273

Hanging log for flowers, 278

Rockery, 279

Vase for plants, 279 Tool-case, an amateur's, 258 Tool-holder, wooden, 242 Tool-holders for grinding, 20, 21 Tools, modelling, 12, 13 Tools, properly and improperly sharpened,

359 Tools, useful roll for, 478 Tools, wood-carver's, 276, 277 Try-square, Starrett's combination, 48 Tub, hoops on a wooden, 44 Tub, how to hoop a, 192

"Vase, how to make model of, 390 Velocipedes, cranks and pedals of, 435 Vices, clock-makers', 152 Violin, diagrams of front and back of a,

101 Violin, diagram of interior of a, 169 Violin, Chanot, 507 Violin, Howell's, 507 Violin, nail, 507

Violins, accessories and fittings for, 395 Violins, ancient, 72, 73 Violins, bridges for, 254 Violins, cases for, 399 Violins, diagram for making, 208 Violins, diagrams of thickness for, 209 Violins, /-holes, of different, 105 Violins, iulaying and purfling, 255 Violins, neck and scroll of, 254

"Wall-brackets, corner, 137 Wall-cabinet, hanging, details of, 25 Washstand, Spanish, 458 "Wire, steel, nippers for, 286 "Wood-carving, bench for, 275 "Wood-carving, tools for, 276, 277 "Wood, some enigmas in, 40

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DESIGN FOR JAPANESE FRET-WORK CABINET FOR CHINA OR BRIC-A-BRAC.

AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED.

INTRO D UCTOR Y.

T the completion of the First Volume of a new Magazine, for which may be claimed the merit of being unique in itself and entirely novel in its aims and object, a few words with respect to its rahon d'etre, and what has been accomplished during the first year of its existence, may not be altogether out of place. The present age is eminently practical, and the majority of those who live in it work with a zeal and will that, speaking generally, were not to be found in the generation that has almost passed away, or, where they did exist, expended their force in widely different directions. To this sweeping assertion there are, as a matter of course, notable exceptions ; but, as exceptions invariably do with regard to everything that is accepted and acknowledged as a rule, these only serve to substantiate the truth of that which has been just advanced.

That the present age is practical, and perhaps practical to a degree that has never yet been attained since the world was young, is to be attributed, on the part of some, to an unhealthy craving for money as the means of acquiring luxuries of all kinds, and, on the part of others, to a healthy desire to utilise their time to the utmost, and to help themselves by doing many things for themselves, for which, to a great extent, they have hitherto been almost, if not completely, dependent on others. Of these desires, the former degenerates into avarice or self-indulgence ; but the latter blossoms into habits of thrift and manly independence and self-dependence.

To attempt to trace the present desire to engage in active practical work to its origin and Term, would occupy too much space, and is, moreover, altogether foreign to the purpose now in view. It is sufficient to point out that the truth is self-evident, and declares itself in the relish with which men of intellect and education, whether richer or poorer, turn to carpentry, gardening, and the various constructive and decorative arts instead of seeking relaxation in pursuits for which the exercise of thought and manual dexterity is by no means necessary.

This desire for work and increased knowledge — a marked characteristic of the present age, as it has been remarked — whatever its beginning, has been of long and very gradual growth. It has given rise to Technical Education for the artisan, and a general wish to make education for all and every state and condition of life as technical and practical as it is possible to render it. The pioneers of Technical Education were busy in many a little town in England long before the leaven began to work in any way in the Metropolis, and the Press brought its | energies to bear on advancing it, and City Guilds became its foster-fathers. The writer was I one of these pioneers, for he was working in this direction full seven-and-twenty years ago in a distant corner of the kingdom, impressing on a class of carpenters, joiners, coach-builders, wheelwrights, and smiths that he had gathered together, that, if they would attain excellence in their respective callings, it was absolutely essential for them to acquire a knowledge of drawing, and be able, so to speak, to put their work on paper. A few years later, he was endeavouring to show that book-work in all schools should be mingled with and relieved by practical teaching in the most ordinary handicraft trades. The proposal was received coldly and with a smile that implied pity for the proposer's weakness of mind and credulity. The

INTROD UCTOR Y.

fact, however, that the means of gaining a knowledge of carpentry are afforded in many large schools at the present time, and the desire of so many to engage in handicraft work, have combined to show that he was right ; and this has been substantially confirmed by the favour with which " Every Man His Own Mechanic" has been received, which, in its turn, coupled with expressions 9f desire for such a serial from many a different quarter, led to the production of Amateur Work, Illustrated.

On all sides a wish for progress is evinced by able men, and the old Latin proverb, " Bos optat ephippia" may in very truth be applied to the greater number of those who work with hand or brain ; for the mechanic seeks to acquire the theoretical knowledge of the brain-worker, while the latter longs to be possessed of the manual skill of the artisan. The apprentice, who has everything to learn in his trade, and the skilled workman, who has learnt everything as far as the modus operandi and rule of thumb are concerned, desire a knowledge of theory and the why and wherefore : the one to gain a shorter cut to excellence, and the other to assist his skill by technical knowledge, and thus to increase his earnings. On the other hand, the clerk, the curate, and the struggling professional man and man of letters, who in many cases are well up in theory, and know why this, that, and the other are, and should be done in ordinary trades, and who can even offer suggestions worth having to mechanics, when at work, finding themselves, of late years, falling to the rear, as far as position, political status, and worldly progress are concerned, are beginning to try to help themselves, and to this end are seeking practical instruction in what may be not inaptly expressed as the how, and when, and in what way to do it. For the former much has been done in the shape of technical works and trade journals ; for the latter, however, as yet but next to nothing has been attempted. They can gather but little that they want from the books and papers written and got up for workmen, because in all these a knowledge of the practical part of the subject is presupposed, and the A B C of elementary work is consequently ignored. That practical instruction is a popular want of the times with amateurs of the middle classes, and that there are no existing books or serials that will satisfy their wants to the full, there is more than sufficient evidence to show in the letters that have reached the Editor and Publishers since the First Part of this Magazine was issued. It was, indeed, to fill up this manifest hiatus in the literature of self-help that AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED, was commenced, and in this is to be found its raison d'etre.

The contents of this Volume may be taken as being fairly typical and representative of the subjects that will be brought under the consideration of the reader, in Amateur WORK, ILLUSTRATED : to those, however, who seek to inquire more fully into the scope and purpose of the Magazine, it may be said that in its pages from year to year it will be sought to treat on all subjects that are embraced in the ever-widening Circle of the Industrial Arts that are of interest to, and can be accomplished by, the Amateur. It will be sought in future Volumes, as in this, to guide everyone who is willing and wishful to work, to everything that he may do, • and can do, in all things connected with the House and its Surroundings, whose execution and performance demand constructive skill and manual labour, and to show him, by means of description and illustration, verbal and pictorial, simply but clearly, briefly but comprehen- sively, technically but intelligibly, so that none can possibly fail to understand —

What is to be done. When it ought to be done. With what it should be done.

How it is to be done. Where it should be done. Who supplies the needful materials.

Who furnishes the necessary tools.

To dwell seriatim on everything and every kind of work that an Amateur artisan may accomplish for himself, within the precincts of his home, within-doors and out-of-doors, and

INTROD UCTOR Y.

even beyond home limits, is manifestly impossible. It is sufficient — while saying that nothing that can be accomplished by the Amateur by manual labour will be foreign to the purpose of Amateur Work, Illustrated — to point to the following pages as a proof that instruction — practical, technical, and theoretical — -which may be desirable, useful, and necessary to the Amateur who is seeking for information, will be given in the Volumes yet to come, as may be required, and as opportunity may offer, in every branch of the Building Trade, and in various Arts and Simple Manufactures and Processes that may come within the compass of his powers and ability. In short, as the present Volume furnishes ample proof, there is no subject involving manual labour, more or less, on which the Amateur may require information and guidance, that will be left untouched in AMATEUR WORK, ILLUSTRATED, in which the writers will always endeavour to show how to obtain the greatest possible results with the least possible expenditure

From month to month notices have been, and will be given, of New Inventions, Appliances, Tools, and Machinery which are calculated to be useful to the Amateur as they may come or be brought to the Editor's notice. This feature of the Magazine has been warmly commended by correspondents, for it has been found to form, as it were, a link and means of intercom- munication between Inventors and Manufacturers on the one hand, and Buyers on the other; assisting the former to find a more extensive market for their specialities, and the latter a more ready means of becoming acquainted with existing or forthcoming appliances that are calculated to do them good service.

In " Amateurs in Council," provision has been made to satisfy inquiries of general interest made by Subscribers. These queries, in special cases, are answered by Contributors on the Staff who have acquired a claim to be considered authorities on the subjects on which they write.

As many readers have expressed from time to time a wish that facilities could be afforded for the sale or interchange of Tools, Appliances, etc., among Amateurs, a new and special department has been organised for this purpose, under the name of AMATEUR-WORK SALE and Exchange Register. This will be commenced in Part 12, which is the first part of Volume II. Further particulars will be found in page 527 of this Volume.

The large folding Supplements which have been received with much favour, and which have been found to be eminently practical and useful, will be continued. It will be sought, however, to render them still more serviceable as Working Drawings to Scale, and to impart such variety to them as will tend to render them acceptable to every section of Amateur Workmen.

Lastly, it only remains to say that a cordial welcome will be given to practical communi- cations from Amateurs who have followed up any special kind of work, be it what it may, and who from actual knowledge can speak with authority with regard to what should be done and what should be avoided, in the work they have made their speciality, and are willing to place their experiences on record for the benefit of others. Such communications, it is desirable, should take the form of Short Articles rather than of Letters. Amateurs are also requested to comment freely on the information given, if they do not understand it, or find it faulty, or contrary to their own experience. Macaulay has said that " Men are never so likely to settle a question rightly as when they discuss it freely." As the best means, then, of coming at the truth, free comment and discussion is invited, and to him who is willing to enter into such friendly controversy, and to do his best to help others by putting before them what he has managed to learn himself, there shall never be lacking the encouragement that is to be found in the old and time-worn saying, Discit docendo The Editor.

LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.

LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.

By PAUL N. HASLVCK.

I. The Lathe : its Parts and General Principles.

HE following papers are intended to show, in plain and definite terms, how an amateur may make a plain, useful lathe. The art of turning possesses many fasci- nations for those whose time is occupied in widely different channels ; and to have a lathe becomes the ambition of most people who attempt to dabble in mechanical work. The prime cost of a useful tool, put chased from the manufacturers, is often an item which effec- tually deters the budding turner, and nips his am- bition in the bud. Hun- dreds of pounds frequently make up the sum total of an outfit of turning appa- ratus, and it is compara- tively few that can afford the cost of such a luxury. A substantial lathe, such as an amateur would re- quire for plain turning, would cost about ten pounds. For this sum a fairly good lathe could be purchased. It would be a 5-inch centre, 3 feet 6 inch bed, mounted on iron standards, with fly-wheel, treadle, etc., all complete ready for use. Such a lathe would form a foun- dation, to which might be added extra appliances and machinery almost without end.

As these papers are written for amateurs, it will be advisable to make the reader properly acquainted with the technical terms that are used. Very probably, those who are studying the subject for the first time will have already found some words and phrases which, if not altogether incomprehensible, are at least not perfectly understood. The subjects must be ex- plained as they occur, though this may have the effect of rendering the first few pages somewhat tedious to those who are already acquainted with the subject. The student will find the benefit of knowing all par- ticulars when he is dealing with the tools themselves, and it is for the tyro student that I write.

FIG. I. — AN AMATEUR S 1'LAIN LATHE.

Lathes are of various kinds ; their sizes and shapes are innumerable. They are used for illimitable pur- poses, each demanding some peculiarity. The axis for watch-work, often less than one-hundredth of an inch in diameter, and cannon, weighing scores of tons, are both fashioned on lathes. It will be easy to under- stand that between the two extremes many modifi- cations are necessary. Wood-turners' lathes, running at a speed one thousand times faster than metal- turners' lathes, differ somewhat in their design and construction. The tool required for the most accurate class of work is more highly finished than that in common use. The foregoing, and many other con- siderations, determine pe- culiarities in lathes which may here be disregarded. The general run of work which is likely to engage the services of an amateur will require tools of gene- ral rather than of special utility.

Amateurs' lathes are usually foot-lathes ; that is, they are driven by foot power, as distinguished from power-lathes, which are those driven by steam. A foot-lathe has a treadle for the feet to drive ; this connected to a crank at- tached to the fly-wheel,_ furnishes the rotary mo- tion. From the fly-wheel a band conveys the mo- tion to the pulley on the mandrel ; this latter is the fundamental part of the entire lathe. The man- drel is fitted in bearings to a frame, which is the mandrel-headstock, sometimes called the fast headstock. A corresponding frame, containing the back centre, is called the back-centre or poppit headstock, and sometimes the loose head- stock. These two headstocks and a T rest are the essential parts of a lathe. They have to be fitted to a bed, which may be of almost any material or form. Cast-iron beds are used for the best quality lathes, but wooden beds serve the purpose in many cases. The bed is supported by legs or standards.

The principal varieties of beds are the double-flat and the V and flat. The former is now most in use ; it has a flat top, with a central slit ; the headstocks rest on the flats, and a web on their under sides fits the slit ; thus accuracy of axial continuity is preserved. The

LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.

-SINGLE-SPEED GAP-BED LATHE.

V and flat has one side flat and the other shaped like an inverted V ; the headstocks rest on the flat and have a groove in them which fits the V, and in that way preserves the axial continuity when the head- stocks are moved. When a lathe is made for self- acting screw-cutting motion, the double flat bed has

the sides of the bed undercut at an angle, or dove-tailed. This dovetail allows the slide- rest carriage to be fitted to slide along the bed. Lathe beds may be any length. Small bench lathes are sometimes only thirty inches long. Ordinary foot-lathes, from 4 to 6-inch centre, have beds from 3 feet to 4 feet long.

The expression "so many inches centre," means the height from the bed to the centre of the mandrel. It shows how large a diameter may be revolved on the lathe. A 5-inch centre lathe will measure 5 inches from the top of the bed to the centre of the mandrel, and a disc 10 inches in diameter is the largest that the lathe will allow. Some lathes have gap-beds, by means of which the nominal Height of centre is increased con- siderably. A piece of the bed is made to remove from near the front of the mandrel headstock, so that a disc of much larger diameter may be mounted. • Though these gap beds offer some advantages, yet for amateurs' use another plan is per- haps preferable. It is to use blocks on which to raise both the fast and loose headstocks, and thus make the lathe, for the time being, so much higher. The T rest will re- quire to be similarly elevated.

Bench-lathes are those which have the bed fitted to short feet, which are screwed on to a bench. Such lathes dispense with the usual standards, etc, and the fly-wheel and treadle are fixed independently, usually to the floor. Table-lathes is another name for these tools.

Back-gear, or double-gear, is an arrangement for driving the mandrel very slowly. It is useful when turning metal of large size, or that which is particularly hard Usually it consists of a wheel and pinion on the mandrel, and a wheel and pinion on a shaft in

FIG. 3.— DOUELE-GEAR GAP-BED LATHE, WITH SLIDE REST.

bIG. 4.— SCREW-CUTTING LATHE, WITH OVERHEAD GEAR.

bearings parallel with the mandrel. The pulley, instead of being fixed to the mandrel, is allowed to run loose, with its front edge close to the toothed wheel pre- viously mentioned, and which is keyed firmly to the mandrel. The small end of the pulley has the pinion fixed to it. On the shaft a wheel and a pinion are fixed ; these gear into the pinion and the wheel on the mandrel. When the lathe is in motion, the action is this : the pulley is turned by the band, the pinion fixed to it turns the wheel on the shaft, the ratio of motion being decreased in pro- portion to the respective diameters. The pinion on the shaft then drives the wheel on the man- drel, and so this latter is propelled. The speed is diminished by means of the gearing, so that from six to nine turns of the pulley cause only one turn of the mandrel. This is back- gearing. In general use, the shaft is moved out of gear, and the mandrel-wheel connected to the pulley by a bolt arrangement. When an extra heavy piece of turning has to be executed, the mandrel-wheel and pulley are dis- connected and geared together by the auxiliary shaft. For wood- turning and light metal-work back- gearing is an incumbrance. It is only required for turning large metal, for which a slow speed is necessary.

Fig. 1 shows a plain lathe, manufactured especially to suit the requirements of amateurs, by Messrs. Tangye, of Birmingham, and Queen Victoria Street, London. This is a cheap lathe, but the work- manship and the materials are good throughout. The mandril headstock is cast solid with the bed, to save expense in fitting. The usual crank shaft is dispensed with, the fly-wheel being fitted on a stud fixed to the left hand standard. The treadle arrangement is similarly simplified. The lathe illustrated is 3 J inch centre has a 2 feet 6 inch bed, and costs ^5 15s. This design is about the most inexpensive that can be procured as a complete lathe on standards, ready for use.

Figs. 2 and 3 represent lathes of similar con struction, both manufactured by Messrs. Tangye. The

LATHE-MAKING FOR AMATEURS.

first is very like Fig. I, but it has a gap-bed, and the treadle swings on a long bar. Fig. 3 has the same framework, but a double-geared headstock, costing about £2 extra. A compound slide-rest is also shown on the bed, this alone costs about £4.

Fig. 4 shows a screw-cutting lathe ; it has in addi- tion overhead gearing, which is used to drive revolving cutters in the slide-rest. This lathe is manufactured by Messrs. Tangye, and possesses many noticeable features. The crank shaft runs on friction rollers, and extends beyond the standards. The treadle is con- nected at both ends, and thus is rendered particularly steady in action. Two fly-wheels are mounted on the crank shaft : one for the usual purpose, the other on the right being to drive the overhead shafting. Belts are used instead of bands, though probably this is no advantage. The details of the overhead cannot well be explained without special illustrations, but a general idea of its objects and construction may be inferred. A moveable gap-piece is fitted to the bed, and on the floor two face plates are shown — one the ordinary size, the other the full diameter that the gap will allow. A drip-can is shown on the slide-rest ; this is to lubricate the work being turned. Such a lathe would cost about ,£50.

The lathe that will be best adapted to the wants of an amateur turner, who has little money to spend, and which will serve most purposes, will be described in detail. A wooden bed, mounted on a wooden frame, will serve for the foundation. This can be built by anyone who has attained some skill in plain carpentry work. The headstocks may be purchased complete, ready for mounting on the bed. The fly- wheel and its cranked axle must also be bought, as they cannot be made by an amateur without special tools and machinery. There are means of making the h=adstocks, which an amateur may adopt, and these will be explained. A lathe of 4 or 5-inch centre will be the most convenient size, and though these dimensions will be adhered to, yet the scale may be altered to suit larger or smaller. With a few words on lathes with screw-cutting and overhead gearing, I will conclude my first paper.

Civilization owes much to the lathe ; and, indeed, the elements of the useful arts were originated by the development of turnery. Spindles, cylinders, and all machinery working with a rotary motion, are con- structed on the lathe. Every branch of handicraft has been improved, either in the manipulation or the results obtained, by introducing rotary motion. The ancient sledge, which slid on runners, gave place to the wheeled car. The original form of printing press has been superseded by cylinder machines, which work with greater precision and at a speed incon- ceivable by any other means. Steam-engines are

made almost exclusively on the lathe ; so that the principal source of locomotion by land and water, and the power which drives our innumerable factories, all owe their existence to lathe work.

The domestic household contains articles of every variety, which have been fashioned on the lathe, while many others are the result of turnery in the second degree. Pottery, in nearly all its forms, is made on the potters' throw, which is a lathe in its most primitive form. Furniture exhibits specimens of wood turnery at every side. Recreation claims much of the turner's art to supply its votaries with the wherewithal to amuse themselves. Balls of all sorts and sizes are wanted in various games of chance and of skill. The billiard ball of to-day is perhaps the best example of accuracy in plain turning that can be mentioned. Mechanism and machinery of every description owes its existence to the lathe, and civilization is, there- fore, indebted to the art of turning for some of its very elements.

All this is done by the lathe in its simplest forms. If we consider the many different apparatus that are used in conjunction with the lathe, and which would be inapplicable without it, a far broader field is before us. Screws are cut on the lathe with an accuracy and precision unattainable by other means. Cog-wheels of all sorts and sizes are made on the lathe. Chucks that produce elliptical, cycloidal, and other geometri- cal figures, are fitted to lathes. Geometric turning is a development of the art almost akin to the fine arts. Bank-note engraving is an example. In this, a mecha- nical design is produced by lathe appliances so per- fectly, that the skill of the forger is baffled. Ornamental turning offers a field of unbounded limits for careful experiment.

The importance of the lathe to the amateur cannot be over-rated. Indeed, if he be possessed of a lathe of sufficient size and power — say a lathe with 5-inch centre and 6-feet bed, fitted with overhead motion for driving drills, cutters, and moulding tools of various forms ; with a circular saw and a fret saw, he has ap- pliances which will enable him to produce all kinds of elegant and useful articles of furniture, with a style of ornament equal to, if not better, than that which is met with in the trade. Every joint of a piece of fur- niture, every groove for small panels or glass can be made mechanically perfect in the lathe. Turned shafts may be flattened on one or more surfaces, parallel or at right angles, by cutters driven from the overhead gearing ; and the same may be grooved, when necessary for panels, etc. For example, the oblong rectangular fabric of a wash-stand might be composed of sides and legs, more or less ornamentally turned in the lathe, and put together by means of screw-joints with or without glue, presenting a compact

WORKING DRAWINGS: HOW TO PREPARE AND PRODUCE THEM.

and solid support for any kind of top that the amateur might determine to place upon it.

Without the lathe, its congeneric tools, and the multifarious productions emanated from them, we should lack much that is now considered indis- pensable. Our condition would be almost that of the lowest status of human beings. Not only would all the refinements of civilization vanish, but the very necessaries of civilized life would be materially dimi- nished. Woven fabrics would be wanting, and skin would have to supply us with clothing. Shells and gourds would take the place of our innumerable cups and vessels. The tools and appliances that would then be available for house-building would make the hut a dwelling for magnates. Locomotion would be practically at an end for long journeys. Artisans would cease work for the want of tools, and the arts would die. The lathe, therefore, claims a foremost place amongst handicraftsmen. Our next chapter will contain some working drawings of a lathe which will be suited to the wants of an amateur. {To be continued.)

-=>«==>*«=

WORKING DRAWINGS:

HOW TO PREPARE AND PRODUCE THEM.

S what has been aptly styled "thinking upon paper" is so essential to success in carrying out every kind of work of a structural character, it may be desirable at the very commencement of a magazine devoted altogether to practical and technical work, to give a few plain directions for the preparation of working drawings, their constructionaccording to scale, and their enlargement or reduction, according to circumstances, from such drawings, sketches or diagrams that may be brought under the reader's notice. It is desirable, especially for articles of furniture when not too large, and for all pieces of work comparatively small in size, th it the amateur should construct for himself working drawings of the object itself and all its details, of the actual size in which it is designed to make it. For work on an extended scale, such as for a shed, a fowl- house, a greenhouse, or a pig-stye, it is impossible to do this, and it will be sufficient to construct drawings on a scale which bears but small proportion to the actual dimensions. For all things, however, for which working drawings of the actual size can be made they should be made, and the amateur should make it a rule to carry this out in every case in which it is practi- cable and possible.

The importance of what has been advanced here will be seen and acknowledged on reference to many

of the illustrations which appear in this, the first part of Amateur Work, Illustrated. On reference to some of these it will be seen that they are given on a scale of so many inches, or perhaps even fractional parts of an inch, to a foot. It is manifestly impossible to produce them of their actual size in these pages, which are limited to a certain size, and are furthermore of uniform length and breadth throughout. All that can be done then is to give them in miniature, as it were, and to produce them in smaller sizes, preserving nevertheless, the due proportions which exist between the various lines of which each figure or diagram is composed. And this, after all, is all that is absolutely necessary, for, being in possession of these, the ama- teur artisan, having selected the article which he wishes to make, can produce working drawings of full size for himself, and thus put on paper the semblance of the work as it will be when completed, before he proceeds to touch tool or timber in carrying out his self-imposed task.

The appliances required in the first place are not many : the most necessary amongst them are a large drawing-board, at least three feet by two feet, a T square, so called from its resemblance to the letter so called, a set square, two or three pairs of compasses, and some pencils and a piece of india-rubber. The draw- ing-board is represented in the accompanying diagram by the rectangle A BCD, the T square by e, and the set square by F, F1, showing it in two different positions. Now the first and chief requisite of a drawing-board is that it shall be perfectly level, or be possessed of a plain surface, and that its angles shall be right angles, or, in other words, that every side shall be at right angles to each of the sides that are adjacent to it. For working drawings of large objects, if the amateur have a room, or " den," that he can call his own, it is useful to have a deal table, rectangular in form, which can be used as a drawing-board, but what is laid down as absolutely necessary for the drawing-board is neces- sary also for the table — namely, that its surface be level, and that the sides, taken in pairs all round, are at right angles one to the other. A useful size for such a table as this is four feet six inches by three feet six inches. The squares, it is scarcely necessary to remark, can be used with the same effect on the table, so long as it be strictly rectangular, as on the drawing-board.

Now when a piece of paper is fastened down with drawing-pins, of which the amateur artisan should provide himself with a dozen, by the aid of the T square straight lines may be drawn on the paper at right angles to the sides or edges of the drawing-board, and if a straight line be drawn on the paper by means of the T square, and the square be then applied to either of the adjacent edges of the drawing-board, and a second straight line be drawn crossing the first line,

WORKING DRAWINGS: HOW TO PREPARE AND PRODUCE THEM,

□

FIG. 2.— COMPARISON OF DIMENSIONS IN ENLARGING DRAWINGS.

the two lines will manifestly be at right angles one to another. The use of the T square will now be apparent, and it only remains to speak of its construction. It usually consists of a head or stock from 6 inches to 12 inches long, about 2 inches broad, and from a quarter of an inch to half an inch in thickness, according to size, to which a long, thin blade, as it is called, is firmly screwed at right angles. These squares are usually made of pear wood, or mahogany. The inner edge of the stock is applied to the edge of the drawing board, and the blade rests upon the board itself, or on the paper that is fastened down to it, and by moving the stock along the edge of the board, the edge of the blade may be brought into any posi- tion required.

The set square is a piece of wood triangular in form, and is so made that one of its angles, G, is a right angle, or 90°, its angle H two-thirds of a right angle, or 6o°, and its angle K one-third of a right angle, or 30°. One of the chief uses of the set square is to draw straight lines parallel to each other, and at right angles to the T square. Thus in Fig. 1, supposing that the T square belaid on theboard, as ir the diagram, and the short side of the set square be applied to the edge L M of the T square, and moved back- wards and forwards along it, any num- ber of straight lines, such as G K, may be drawn at right angles to L M, and parallel to one another, done if the set square

M

/ N

/a

FIG. I. — THE DRAWING BOARD, T SQUARE, AND SET SQUARE.

The same may also be be placed as at F, and a similar result may be obtained by a set square of another form, shaped as at N, and shown by dotted lines, in which one angle, O, is a right angle, and the other angles, P and Q, equal angles of 45° each. By the use of the set squares it is manifest that other straight lines at angles other than right angles to the edge L M of the T square, but parallel to each other

can be drawn. Such straight lines as these are shown in Fig. 1, by the straight lines H K, Q P, and K1 h1. The angles made by these straight lines with the straight line L M, may be thus enumerated, beginning at the left, and proceeding from left to right — namely, MHK = 60°, K H L= I20°, M Q P= 135°, P Q L = 45°, M K1 H1 = 150^ and H1 K1I. = 3o°. A knowledge of these angles will be found helpful, and save much work in deter- mining angles with the protractor. The set square, it will be seen, will, in many cases, if not in all, render the case of what is called a parallel rule unne- cessary, though it is handy to have one or two of them.

Nothing need be said here about the compasses, or dividers, and their use, as it may be safely assumed that every reader of this knows what can be done, and what to do with them. It is on the use and construction of scales and the production of a working drawing of actual size from a drawing on a smaller scale, that it is more necessary to speak. Now, when . it is said that a

drawing is on the scale of an inch to a foot, or of one inch to one foot, all that is meant is, that every line that measures exactly one foot in the ob- ject itself, or in a working drawing of the actual size of the object, is exactly one inch in the drawing done on the scale of one inch to a foot, and that all other lines in the object, or working drawing, measure exactlysomanyfeet,cr fractional parts of afoot, or both combined, as they are found to be in inches, or fractional parts of an inch, or both combined, in the drawing on the scale of an inch to a foot. In fact, in making a working drawing from a drawing done on the scale of one inch to a foot, every linear measurement in the working drawing must be made twelve times as great as the corresponding linear measurement in the drawing on the smaller scale,because there are 12 inchej

ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.

to I foot. Similarly, if the smaller drawing be done on a scale of ii inches to I foot, every linear measurement in the small drawing must be in- creased to eight times its length in the working drawing of full size, because i^ inches are contained 8 times in 12 inches. Similarly when drawings are done to a scale of 2 inches, 3 inches, 4 inches, 6 inches, or 9 inches to I foot, for the sake of carrying out exem- plification to the utmost, it is clear that these drawings are respectively just one-sixth, one-fourth, one-third, one-half, or three-fourths of the length they will assume in the working drawing ; or, in other words, that the linear measurements in the working drawings will be six times, four times, three times, twice, or one and one-third times as long as they are found respectively in the sketches done to scale.

"When, therefore, the amateur artisan has occasion to enlarge any drawing to form a working drawing of the actual size of the object or article to be made, all that he has to do is to arrive at a perfect under- standing of the scale on which the sketch, drawing, or drawing to scale is done, and make his drawing accordingly. He must first determine what fractional part of a foot his scale is, and increase every linear measurement in the actual working drawing in the proportion that the scale adopted bears to 1 foot, as it has been explained above. And in reducing a work- ing drawing to any stated scale, it is manifest that he must proceed conversely, diminishing every linear measurement to the proportion indicated by the scale, whatever it may be to the foot.

In the above remarks, stress has been laid on the word " linear " in conjunction with measurement, be- cause superficial proportion and solid, or cubic, pro- portion are altogether different to linear proportion, and increase in a very much greater ratio. Suppose, for example, that I wish to enlarge a in Fig. 2 to twice its size as regards linear dimensions, or, in other words, to increase its linear measurement twofold. It then assumes the size shown in B ; but while the linear dimensions are only twice as much in B as in A, the superficial area of B is four times as great as that of A ; and if A were a cube, the cubic or solid content of B would be eight times as great as that of A. In the same .way, the linear dimensions of c are three times as great as those of A, and the linear dimensions of B are four times as great as those of A ; but the super- ficial area of C is nine times, and that of D sixteen times as great as the superficial area of a ; while, if these figures be taken as cubes, the solid content of C would be twenty-seven times, and that of D sixty-four times as great as the solid content of A. In speaking, therefore, of the enlargement or reduction of the draw- ing of any article, it must be remembered that it is always linear measurement to which reference is made

and that area or bulk is never implied unless specially mentioned ; for, as we have already seen, an object which is merely three times as large every way as another, when linear measurement is concerned, is in reality twenty-seven times as great as the same object when absolute bulk is taken into consideration ; and the bulk of any article, when made, of the actual size which it is desired to be according to its lineal dimen- sions expressed in feet, is positively one hundred and forty-four times as large, according to the superficial dimensions of its parts, and seventeen hundred and twenty-eight times as large in bulk as its model, con- structed on a scale of 1 inch to 1 foot.

Of the mechanical part of the enlargement or reduction of a drawing, or, in other words, the tracing of the lines which together make up the enlargement or reduction, as the case may be, nothing need be said here, as the object of this paper is chiefly to explain the nature of such work when considered according to the scale on which it is, and the proportion on which it is to be drawn, and to caution the amateur artisan against any misconception of the principles involved.

ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.

By GEORGE EBWISSON.

I.- SIMPLE SILVERING.

The Process and the Materials, Tools, and Appli- ances Required.

N most households may be found a numbei. of small articles of brasst copper, or German silver, that were once white and bright like true silver, but now proclaim their base composition. When the ar- ticles happen to be in the form of spoons, forks, and cruet-stands, they are still continued in use for com- mon purposes, but if they happen to be in the form of ornaments for personal adornment, such as locket^ brooches, ear-rings, chains, etc., their unsightly ap- pearance (of a tint neither white nor yellow, but a mixture of both) renders their owners averse to their continued use as ornaments, and they are put away out of sight in the bottom of a box, or are given to the children to play with. Occasionally, a few of those trinkets - relics of some souvenir from a friend — are taken to the local jeweller to be resilvered, but the price charged for the job exceeds the estimated cost, and the owner finds that he or she can get new articles for a price only a trifle above that charged for re-plating the old ones. In many cases the new articles are purchased under the name of "electro-

A 2

TO

ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.

plated goods," at a bargain, worn for a few weeks, when they become yellow, and then thrown aside with dis- gust, and a feeling of distrust of all electro-plated articles. It may be well to state here that such articles were never electro-plated, but merely whitened with a film of silver no thicker than paint, put on by a process similar to that we are now about to de- scribe, and one quite within the province of the amateur artisan to perform for himself. By this pro- cess he may be able to renew the silver on his ornaments as often as it is worn off, and thus preserve their white respectable appearance for any length of time.

It must be understood at the outset that this pro- cess is only suitable for articles that are made to be looked at, but not worn ; it is therefore altogether unsuitable for silvering spoons, forks, chains, etc., exposed to wear. It is used chiefly to silver the dials of clocks, gauges, and barometers when these are made of metal, and may be used for brass mounts, brackets, and similar ornamental articles. The silver of the mixture is merely deposited on the base metal by a chemical interchange of material, some of the brass being dissolved and carried off in nearly an equal proportion to the amount of silver deposited on the metal, and when this is covered with silver, the action ceases. It is well that the reader should know how to effect this simple process before I proceed further, and begin to initiate the reader into the secrets of electro- plating proper.

The tools required for simple silvering are few in number and of small cost, since they may be impro- vised out of household articles in almost daily use. A common pint basin, or a tart-dish of enamelled earthenware, a small iron saucepan, an old tooth brush, a bunch of fine brass wires, a stick of firewood smoothed to form a stirrer, and a few pieces of clean white rag, are all the tools that are absolutely neces- sary for the purpose. The ingredients for cleaning the articles are equally simple, being only a bit of bathbrick, some soapy water, and a small quantity of pearl ash.

Various mixtures have been tried by persons interested in the process, with varying success, but few are available for the object now under consideration; and it is only necessary to give one or two that can be cheaply and simply compounded and also not trouble- some to use. The most simple mixture and one most easy of preparation, is that of chloride of silver moistened with water, and a little common table-salt added to form a composition of the consistence of thin cream ; but as this recipe is somewhat vague I will enter more into detail. Procure of any chemist, druggist, or dealer in photographic materials, one pennyweight, or about sixpennyworth, of nitrate of

silver in half a pint of distilled water ; to this add some salt water in the pint basin before mentioned. The two liquids will curdle, and a number of white curds will sink to the bottom, these curds are chloride of silver. When they have ceased to form and have settled down to the bottom of the vessel, pour off carefully all the water and stir in about threepenny- weights of crushed common washing soda, and half the quantity of table-salt, and bring the whole to the consistence of thin cream by adding a little warm water.

Another mixture may be made by adding to the chloride of silver (as prepared according to the fore- going directions) eight times its weight of common salt, eight times its weight of cream of tartar, and twice its weight of crushed alum, all made into a paste with warm water. If it is desired to make larger quantities than these, the weight of the nitrate of silver may be augmented, and the other ingredients in- creased in proportion. Some caution must be ob- served in the use of nitrate of silver, since both it and

mmiiiiiim

FIG. I. — WIRE SCRATCH BRUSH.

its solution will stain the skin an indelible black. After preparing the chloride of silver, it should be speedily mixed with the other ingredients, for it is readily altered by exposure to sunlight, becoming first purple and ultimately black.

The silvering mixture being now prepared, it will be necessary to clean the articles intended to be silvered, and here it is necessary to impress upon the reader what is meant by cleaning. It is not enough to polish up the article with a plate brush, or rub it with a rag and whiting, or wash it in soapsuds and hartshorn. Such a cleaning would not be sufficient for the purpose in view, since the article must not only be mechanically, but also chemically clean.

If the articles are corroded with dirt and show a few spots of verdigris, it will be necessary to make a small scratch brush of fine brass wire, by winding several lengths around a small book, form a hank or skein, binding this tightly with a few turns of the wire to within half an inch of the ends, and cutting the ends to form a brush. This brush is used with the cleansing mixture to remove all obstinate spots of tarnish or verdigris, and to clean out the crevices of the ornaments.

The cleansing mixture is made byforminga strong lather of soap and water, and adding thereto a quantity of pearl ash. With this mixture moisten the

ELECTRO-PLATING AT HOME.

end of the wire brush, and go over all the article to be silvered until even- trace of dirt has been removed. If any spots of tarnish remain, rub the brush in some powdered bathbrick, and with this remove the obstinate spots.

In the meantime make a strong mixture of common washing soda, or of pearl ash and water, and cause it to boil in the small iron saucepan. Into this mixture plunge the cleaned article, having first taken the pre- caution of attaching it to a piece of wire. Swill it in the boiling liquid for ten minutes or longer, then take it out and rinse it in clean hot water. It should now be quite clean and free from grease, and must not be touched with the naked hand, but held in a clean piece of rag during the next operation, which is that of silvering.

It sometimes happens that barometer and clock dials are stained and streaked with yellow and brown marks, and require to be re silvered. These discolour- ations are fixed in the varnish, and it is necessary to remove the varnish before the dial can be re-silvered. To do this, warm the dial gently, and whilst still warm, rub it with a rag moistened with methylated spirits of wine until all the varnish has been removed. The dial will then probably only require to be rubbed with a pad of rag moistened with the cleansing mixture, and swilled in hot water, when it will be ready for silvering.

To apply the silvering mixture to brooches, lockets, etc., use an old tooth-brush dipped in the mixture, and with this rub over every part well, holding the article in a piece of clean rag, until it is well covered with silver. It must then be well rinsed in hot water, dried, and gently polished With a soft piece of rag or chamois leather. Dials, and broad surfaces of plain metal, should be well rubbed with the mixture, held on a piece of clean rag bound on a new bottle-cork. Go over the surface in a number of small circles, com- mencing from the centre of the dial, and avoid making streaks in the silvering. When silvered, they must be rapidly dried by swilling them in clean, hot water, and rubbing them with a clean linen rag.

Gas brackets, mounts of boxes and furniture, and other ornamental articles exposed to the action of air, but not to ordinary wear and tear, must be protected with a coat of varnish after they have been silvered. The process by which this is effected is similar to that of lacquering, the varnish being that known as pale lacquer, or shellac dissolved in spirits of wine. The articles to be lacquered must first be heated in an oven until they are almost too hot to be held in the hand, they must then be carefully dusted with a clean brush or a bunch of feathers, and a coat of the lacquer applied whilst they are still hot.

It is more than possible that the figures on the dial have been removed by the cleansing process unless

they happen to be stamped in the metal. If they were originally painted black, it will be best to renew them in the same colour, and for this purpose a little of Judson's black, mixed with some of the lacquer, and laid on with a sable or camel's hair pencil, will be found to meet all requirements. We suppose, of course, that the amateur is able to make figures and letters, but if this be beyond his skill, it will be better to get a friend to do it for him. If the figures are stamped in the metal, they should be gilded, and for this purpose a little of Bessemer's or Judson's gold paint will be suf- ficient. In lettering or figuring the dial, care must be taken not to soil the silvering with the fingers, and to avoid this it will be advisable to rest the fingers on a maul-stick, after the plan adopted by sign-writers.

Amateurs who, through want of time or any other reason, do not care to prepare for themselves any of the mixtures for silvering that have been mentioned above, may use " Lunadine," a new preparation recently produced for this purpose, and so called from the Latin luna, the moon, which was held by the old heralds to be the natural type of the metal silver, when used in the blazonry of armorial bearings, as sol, the sun, was taken to represent the more precious metal gold. Lunadine is a mixture, creamy in colour and con- sistency, and as it has been said, will impart a silvery appearance to articles made of brass, copper, and German silver. When such articles are well cleaned and rubbed with a piece of clean rag moistened with the mixture, they become covered with a film of metal resembling sterling silver. This mixture will serve as an excellent substitute for the simple silvering pro- cesses that have been mentioned in this paper, and is well suited to the purposes of whitening clock and barometer dials, ornamental mounts, and similar metal work not exposed to much wear. An analysis of the mixture shows that no mercury is used in its com- position, and it is therefore superior in every way to the so-called silvering mixtures sold in the streets, which invariably contain a quantity of quicksilver.

I have already hinted that the process of simple silvering has no proper relation to that of electro-plat- ing, and this will be seen as I proceed. In my next article I shall instruct the reader in making prepara- tions for real electro-plating work, and lead him on from simple ornamental plating to the successful laying on of silver on those household articles strictly named plate, or so many of them as come within the scope of his means and ability. It is almost needless to add that the writer of these papers will have much pleasure in giving, through the medium of this magazine, further advice and instruction in any operation connected with " Electro-plating at Home," in which amateurs may experience any difficulty. (.To be coniimied.)

12

MODELLING IN CLAY.

MODELLING IN CLAY.*

AN INTRODUCTION TO THE ART OF CARVING IN WOOD.

of the art.

I. The Tools, Appliances, and Materials.

HE interest felt in Wood Carving has led

to the publication of many books and

papers treating upon the subject — giving

hints as to the proper tools to be used, the

methods to be employed, and other details

Most of these, however, have been of an

exceedingly

elementary

character,

and best

suited to the

wants of

those who,

knowing

nothing of

wood - work-

of the carpenters' and joiners'

With these elementary

-MODELLING STAND,

ing and the use tools, wish to learn to carve steps the carpenter and the amateur artisan who has made some progress in the handicraft that he has adopted, are already familiar. They understand the management of wood and the care of their tools, and there are, perhaps, only a few hints in regard to the special tools used in carving which will be of any ser- vice to them.

Like a great many carpenters and amateurs, the writer has carefully read the articles published on this subject, as well as many of the books which have been written in regard to it, hoping to find such instruction as would enable him to take a design, put it upon a panel or piece of wood, and then produce a carv- ing which should be useful for the ornamentation of some article of furniture.

There was an abundance of tools at hand, and there was no lack of skill in their handling, and, as in most carpenters' shops, stones and hones were at hand for keeping them in order. When, however, the pattern was outlined upon the wood and the real work of carving began, he awoke to the fact that the directions stopped short at the most important point. Like him, too, the carpenter will be

* From a Series of Articles in Carpentry and Building. By W. E. Partridge. With Alterations and Additions.

¥■"■■ ■■ ii ' j '

IT

.'.■.am

-TURN-TABLE FOR STAND.

FIG. 3. — CHISEL-SHAPED TOOL, WITH BENT POINT.

surprised to find that after all his experience, he does not know how to " think in solid wood." And if the skilled artisan be altogether at sea in this most neces- sary part of the ornamental wood-working that he aspires to carry out, how much more will the amateur find himself at fault, and if it be desirable that ths professional carpenter should learn to " think in solid wood," to repeat the form of words of which use has just been made before he puts his tools to the wood, how much more necessary must it be for the unskilled ama- teur to seek to become acquainted with what may be fairly called the firt steps to this pleasing and attractive decorative art ?

When we have houses and other structures to build, we find ready at hand plans, drawings, eleva- tions, and working drawings in detail, together with elaborate descriptions. By means of these the car- penter is taught to think in panels, mouldings, and skirtings. With the framing plan before him, it is easy to think in timber and beams. When the eleva- tion is given, it is easy to think in walls and windows, doors, foundations, and roofs, and, in the mind's eye, to bring up an exact image of what the finished structure will be. But when a plain block of wood is laid upon the bench with a pattern drawn upon its face, the carpenter soon realizes, as he begins to cut away the surface, to obtain relief, that the directions that he has met with in books have given him no clue which will enable him to think in wood. He has no guide as to the relative elevations and curves of the different parts and surfaces. He has to feel for the

effect which will make the pat- tern look best, and he often finds that he has made a leaf hol- low which would look far better convex. His only recourse is to take another block and try again. In this way much hard work must be wasted, and in the end it will be found that the result . has not been altogether what could be expected from an equal amount of labour intelligently applied under a competent instructor.

The object of the present series of papers is to give in detail a description of the methods by which the process of " thinking in wood " may be begun, or, to put it in other words, the process of " thinking in

MODELLING IN CLAY.

FIG. 4. — DOUBLE BENT SrATULA, OR SPOON-SHAPED TOOL.

relief,'' or " in the solid." The shortest and most practical way to arrive at this result is by modelling in clay. Modelling is, perhaps, the only means by which the learner can attain a knowledge of carving without the experience of a teacher. It enables him to try experiments in relief, to build up and take down, to spread out or bring together the parts of his pattern, until he obtains the best effect.

A little prac- tice with plastic materials soon

enables him to get a knowledge of surfaces in relief. When this is once attained, the task of " thinking in wood " is practically accomplished. Knowing this fact, many persons have bought works devoted to the subject of modelling, hoping to find instructions which would enable them to go on without a teacher. After reading the few- vague directions contained in these works they have eenerallv FIG- 5-— sword blade and pointed spoon combined

been disheartened, finding the practical part of the subject dismissed with the remark, that a few minutes' instruction from a teacher, or ten minutes spent in watching a person at work in clay, is worth more than all the instructions that could be given in a book. This is only too true, yet it was the object of the books to teach, and not to refer to teachers.

It is possible, however, by means of direc- tions and en- gravings, to teach the ele- mentary steps in the art ; and it

parts of Devonshire and Cornwall — it is, in fact, the clay that is used in making earthenware. Before it is used the clay must be carefully refined and cleansed to free it from grit ; indeed, it is a sine qua non that all clay used in modelling should be thoroughly clean. It may be procured ready for use at any of the

Lambeth pot- teries, notably at Doulton's. Its price is from four shillings to five shillings per hundredweight, and the amateur will not find it serve his purpose to buy less than a quarter of a hundredweight, even for work on a small scale, as clay is very heavy, its specific gravity being great, and its bulk, so to speak, is not in proportion to its weight. Modelling clay is apt to crack in drying, and on

this account it should be kept moist by sprink- ling water over it occasionally, and a piece of work in progress should be kept carefully covered with a damp cloth. The best repository for clay is a wooden box, lined with lead, tin, or zinc, but even when kept in such a receptacle as this, the clay must be damped occasionally. It is possible that pipe-clay might be used for making

models of smaller size, but the same routine must be ob- served in the use of this ; that is to say, it must be kept in a plastic con- dition by damp- ing it occasion- a 1 1 y. With regard to the use of pipe-clay,

is also possible to give the practical man such i this is only put forth as a suggestion ; it is worth

the trial, and amateurs who may make the essay are requested to furnish the result of their experiments. Pipe-clay can be purchased in small quantities, and at a low rate, of any oil and colourman.

The tools and appliances necessary for working in clay are not numerous, and any one, whether pro- fessional carpenter or amateur, who wishes to take up

FIG. 6.- OBLIQUE CHISEL EDGE AND GEEATLY CUKVED SI OON LOU'L.

FIG. 7. — TOOTHED SWORD BLADE AND BENT POINT.

directions as will enable him to use the clay as a con- venient means for trying experiments, and determining in advance the effect which his work will have when finished in wood.

The necessary outfit is simple and inexpensive. The clay that is used is the ordinary blue clay, found in the valley of the Medway, in Dorsetshire, and in

'4

MODELLING IN CLA Y.

the art, need have no expense beyond that of getting the clay. Every necessary article can be made or extemporised by any one who has sufficient ability to use the carpenters' tools, and to do a little simple carpentry. The modelling-stand shown in Fig. I is made of deal, and can soon be cut out and put together in any odd time. Its size must depend in a great measure upon the size of the work to be done. It will be large enough if the top or sloping board opposite the operator be about 24 inches in length by 18 inches in breadth. To prevent warping, the ends should be clamped, and a good coat of paint or a couple of coats of shell-lac varnish should be laid over it. If a school slate of a large size be at hand, it may be laid upon the stand, and the model laid upon it. Slate is one of the best of all foundations for a clay model.

It will be found of great convenience if a kind of turn-table like that shown in Fig. 2 is made to hold the slate. This is simply a disc of wood, with a pin at the back, as shown at a, which fits into a hole bored in the stand, shown at Fig. 1. A couple of holes are bored in opposite sides of the frame of the slate, through which two pins are thrust, entering holes made for their reception in the disc, and holding the slate firmly fixed to the disc. This board or disc may be made square or oblong in form, and of the shape of the slate, if it be preferred ; but in this case the hole in the stand must be placed high enough up to allow the corners to clear the projecting ledge at the bottom.

If a little extra expense can be afforded, the disc of deal may be covered with sheet lead, turned over and tacked down round the edge, or a piece of sheet zinc can be cut out to fit the board. Lines of tinned tacks can be run across the face of the disc, when thus covered with metal, in order to keep the surface of the metal flat. A table of this kind permits the work to be turned round at the pleasure of the operator, so as to bring it into different lights, and enable the hand to get at all parts of the design.

The tools are very simple, and can be made from boxwood, logwood, beech, pearwood, or any other hard, close-grained wood of similar character. All of them can be obtained from Buck, of Holborn Viaduct, and possibly of all dealers in edge-tools, and also of some oil and colourmen. They are to be had in two sizes, six and nine inches long, the smaller size costing about sixpence and the larger ninepence each. As the work progresses, necessity will suggest many useful forms of tools to the operator. These can be fashioned out of a piece of hard wood, and finished with a file and sand-paper, and will be found to answer just as well as the most expensive.

Modellers' tools are also made of ivory and bone, but these are of course more expensive, and of no greater use than the wooden ones. Metal tools may be

purchased for cutting and digging out the clay from the lump.

Of each tool which it is desirable to have in the beginning, two views have been given, as the reader will see on looking at Figs. 3 to 7. These are so simple that he will find no difficulty whatever in making them. In all the figures, excepting Fig. 7, of which only one view has been supplied, the sketches termi- minating in long points show the tool when regarded in elevation, or when looking directly at its side, while the other sketches, terminating in obtuse points, and in the case of Fig. 6, in a square end cut obliquely, show the tool when looked on in plan, as when laid on the table with the eye directed downwards upon it. For small work, six inches is long enough for any and all of these tools, but for designs of any considerable size, larger tools are needed. Fig. 3 shows a tool, chisel-shaped at one end, having at the other end a point which is somewhat bent. Fig. 4 shows a tool bent at both the ends, which in shape are something like the bowl of a spoon. Fig. 5 shows a tool which has the end to the left thin and sword-shaped, while that to the right is bent, and terminates in a somewhat pointed, spoon-shaped form. That shown in Fig. 6 has an oblique, chisel-shaped edge at one end, while the other is well rounded. Fig. 7 shows a tool having a sword-like blade at one end cut into teeth. It is a useful tool for cutting away portions of the clay, and for digging out pieces of the material.

These ends are not always associated one with another in the manner represented in the illustrations. It is not unusual to find the sword-like blade of Fig. 5 combined with a point like that in Fig 3, or with a knob, as in Fig. 6. The way in which the ends are combined makes no difference whatever, except in the convenience of working. If there are practically two tools in the hand at one time, it is only necessary to turn the stick end for end to make either of them available.

In making the tools saw the strips of wood roughly into shape, and then work them down with a rasp. Finish with fine sand-paper, and then polish the sur- face as perfectly as possible.

The crooks in the tools are very valuable, and it is the opinion of those who are most familiar with their use, that the crooked tool is the most serviceable, other things being equal. It is difficult in purchasing at shops at which these articles are sold, to get tools with much bend in them ; hence the workman who makes his own will have certain advantages over the one who buys. All the earlier pieces of work under- taken by the learner will suggest special tools with which to work in difficult places. The time occupied in making and using these tools will be well spent, and though as more experience is gained they will be dis-

HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.

IS

carded to some extent, yet they will have assisted in teaching valuable lessons.

The next paper on this subject will be devoted to the materials used and directions for taking the first steps in making a clay model, which is to form the subject of a carving. In the meantime, the amateur will find abundant occupation in making the tools and appliances described above.

(To be continued?)

HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.

-General Principles of Construction. — Materials for the Pipes.— Method of Making- the Stopped Tenor C Pipe.

F the manufacture of an article, ornamental or otherwise, that can be seen only, affords considerable pleasure to the maker, how much greater must be the gratification and self-satisfaction enjoyed by the ama- teur, who, after long hours of anxious care and labou^ has produced an instrument that can be heard as well as seen, and therefore appeals to two out of the five senses instead of but one.

Construction, or in other words, the making of the various component parts of any article, bit by bit, and putting them together, may be taken to be the siimmum bonum of most amateurs. The accomplishment of the object now in view, inasmuch as it involves plenty of making as far as the separate parts are concerned, and plenty of careful putting together, affords an excellent exercise of ingenuity and patience to any who may be enamoured of mechanical work, so without taking up their time and occupying valuable space with prelimi- nary remarks on the history and progress of organ- building, which they may gather for themselves from any good encyclopaedia, such as " Beeton's Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Universal Information," I will at once enter upon my subject and proceed to sketch out for their information the processes necessary in making a small organ.

By a " small organ '"' I do not mean such an instru- ment as would be placed in a church or school-room ; I mean such a miniature organ as will discourse sweet, quiet music in a drawing-room or library, and which may serve as a pleasing accompaniment to the voice of a singer. If some little contempt should be expressed for so tiny an instrument, as a mere " kist o' whistles," let it be remembered that I write not so much for more fortunate amateurs who have gained experience in carpentry, and are possessed of the means to supply

themselves with what they will, but for young carpen- ters with slender purses, and that I desire to avoid taxing severely either the ability of the first or the capacity of the second.

I shall assume that the would-be organ-builder has access to a convenient workshop, with a bench and tools ; and that he is handy with the plane. But I shall not assume more than this ; I shall not even take it for granted that he is musical. James Watt built a very remarkable organ, though he was destitute of musical talent. Above all, I shall not assume that he has the command of considerable sums of money ; and in all my directions I shall keep economy strictly in view.

First, then, let us clearly see our task before us. The simplest organ consists of a wide, shallow box, called a wind-chest, with a top called a sound-board, divided internally into compartments called grooves or channels, and filled with air by a pair of bellows. The wind-chest is supported horizontally above the bellows by corner-posts and cross-rails making up the "building- frame." On the top of the sound-board the pipes are planted ; and each pipe is made to speak or sound at pleasure (when the bellows are blown) by opening a valve in the wind-chest connected with a key or note in the finger-board. So that if there are fifty keys or notes in the finger-board, then there will be .fifty pipes (at fewest) in the organ; and as every pipe must have' its channel and its valve, there will be fifty channels and valves in the sound-board and wind-chest. But I shall show that the fifty channels and valves may supply ten times fifty pipes, if an organ with numerous pipes be desired.

I propose that the amateur organ-builder shall commence operations by making the pipes. I do this because the first outlay for the requisite wood need not be great, and because he will be much encouraged at the outset of his undertaking if he find himself suc- cessful with the essentially musical part of it. Our pipes will be partly of the kind called "Stopped Diapason," and partly of the kind called "Clarabella." The whole of them will be made of half-inch pine boards, which should be very dry and clean, i.e., free from knots ; and we shall require a few lengths of harder wood, such as mahogany or oak, in scantlings of about two inches square and a few feet long, or in short pieces. The odds and ends of a cabinet-maker's shop often serve useful purposes in pipe-making.

Let us begin by making the stopped pipe called Tenor C (Fig. i) ; it will serve as a sample of all the other stopped pipes, whether larger or smaller. Take a piece of the scantling, say 2 inches square, and 2 or 3 feet long. Dress down one side with the jack-plane until the piece is if inches wide by 2 inches deep ; smooth the whole piece nicely with the "jointer," taking

i6

HOW TO BUILD A SMALL ORGAN.

care to keep the angles perfectly square. Cut off a piece 3 inches long for the "block" (Fig. 2, b) of the pipe, and another 4 inches long for the "stopper" (a). Across the narrower side of the block, and three- quarters of an incl. from one end, make a deep saw- cut ; about half an inch from this saw-cut make another, and take out the intervening wood with a chisel. The gap thus made, called the " throat " (c), should be 1 2 inch in depth. Now prepare the two sides of the pipe, cut the boards somewhat more than 2 inches wide, and about 2 feet 4 inches long ; dress them nicely, and glue them to the two wider sides of the block ; take care that the joint is good, and allow the whole to dry. When it is so, dress the edges of these boards with the jointer so that the glued-in block shall be perfectly level with them. Then prepare the back and front boards, observing that while the back board must be of the full length of the pipe, the front board mayjust overlap the inner edge of the block. Smear over with thin glue the whole interior surface of all the four boards ; then apply the back and front boards, and bind them round with strong twine, using all your strength to draw it tight, and winding the string round a little roller of wood to avoid cutting your hands. Allow the whole to dry for a night at least. If, on removing the twine, and dressing the pipe over with a fine plane, the joints are perfectly close and good, the maker may hope for a pure tone from the pipe.

To enable it to give a tone at all, how- ever, it must now be " voiced." With a pocket-knife (which is much used in organ-building) and a sharp chisel form the sloping or chamfer in the front board shown at f in the cut (Figs. 2 and 3). Then, guiding your knife by means of a square, cut across the chamfered part to form the mouth of the pipe. This mouth, in a stopped pipe, is, in height, commonly about one-third of the width of the pipe internally ; in the present pipe it will therefore be somewhat more than half an inch in height. With the chisel bring the chamfer of the mouth to a neat but not sharp edge. Prepare the " cap " (see d, Figs. 2 and 3) by taking a piece of mahogany, or other hard wood of the requisite size, and cutting a hollow in it with a chisel, deep at G, and diminishing to nothing at H.

When fitted to the pipe the upper edge of the block must just show (say the sixteenth of an inch) above the upper edge of the cap. Between the block and cap a " wind-way " is made by carefully filing the cap at H before it is fixed on. This wind-way should present

fig. 1. — STOP

I'KD PIPE, COMPLETE.

a cleft not much wider than the thickness of a common playing-card. Fix the cap on by two sprigs or screws (not more), running into the edges of the side boards.

Next take the piece of wood, 4 inches long, which was reserved for the stopper. Fashion it into a convenient shape, as in the cut ; cover its lower part with soft white leather (the thinner the better, if the stopper fits well), and insert it carefully in the top of the pipe, using a little soap, or tallow, or black-lead, to facilitate its slid- ing easily but closely within it.

All that now remains is to bore a hole with the brace-and- bit in the bottom of the block, and insert the foot (e). If the ama- teur has no lathe he may plane the foot up, and make it as round as he can ; it should be 5 or 6 inches long, and the hole through the middle may be bored with a large gimlet, or the brace-and- bit. If the wood be turned con- tinually as the hole is bored, it will probably be central. Burn the hole afterwards with a red- hot iron.

Now, on blowing through the foot, the labours of the amateur will be rewarded by a good musical note. Of the quality of the note, and how to modify its power and vary its tone, I shall treat hereafter. Enough, at present, if it is seen that the note is pro- duced by the edge of the lip ( F) cutting or dividing the sheet of wind thrown against it from the cleft between the block and cap ; and, therefore, that a nice adaptation of these several parts is essential to suc- cess. (See Fig. 3.) Some builders file little nicks in the front of the block, and sometimes in the edge of the cap, to facilitate the passage of the sheet of wind against the lip or edge of the mouth ; others omit these nicks. The stopper enables us to shorten our pipes ; thus, an open pipe producing the note Tenor C~

must be 4 feet in length, while our stopped

. ° ' rr fig. 3. — SliC-

Tenor C is but 2 feet or thereabout. Into tion of

the acoustical reasons of this I can- stopped pipe

not now enter. But if the pipe gives a husky, bad

note, examine the stopper, and see that in inserting it

you have not opened one of the seams. An aperture

no larger than a pin-hole will spoil the tone of a pipe.

Hence the internal sizing with glue.

fig. 2.— detail of

stopped pipe.

A, Stopper ; B, Block ;

c, Throat ; d, Cap ;

E, Foot ; F, Lip.

A JAPANESE CABINET FOR CHINA AND BRIC-A-BRAC.

i7

Of course this one pipe is an experiment. In my next paper I will proceed to show how time and material may be economised in making the whole set of pipes, with their varying sizes and lengths. After that I shall direct the maker's attention to the bellows and building-frame, proceeding thence to the important wind-chest.

Before I conclude, however, a few words of advice »re necessary, and I cannot impress too strongly upon the amateur the necessity of paying strict attention to what I am about to say, as it will greatly facilitate his labours. The dimensions of the pipe that we have been considering have been given in every particular, and the shape of the pipe and the relations of its various parts have been set forth in the figures with which this article is illustrated. From these let the amateur construct working drawings to scale. It will help him to master the construction of the pipe before he applies a single tool to the wood of which it is to be made ; but, by effecting this, will abridge the time taken in making the pipe by about one half. {To be continued.)

A JAPANESE CABINET FOR CHINA AND BRIC-A-BRAC.

{For Illustrations, see the Supplement to this Part.)

RET-CUTTING is a work that is both pleasing in itself and useful in its out- come, and for this reason it commends itself to many amateurs who take up wood-working as a congenial pursuit and employment Among the various objects that the pro- jectors of Amateur Work, Illustrated, have in view, one of the most important, and one, possibly, which will find much favour with its readers, is the production of clear and accurate working drawings of different things that the amateur artisan may construct or use for the purpose of decoration, on such a scale, that he may have no difficulty in working direct from the pattern itself in the size given, or in enlarging it to such dimensions as may suit his requirements, always preserving the relative proportions*

With reference to the special piece of work now under consideration, it will be useful to many to review its separate parts in detail, with reference to their pre- paration ; then to dwell briefly on the method to be followed in putting the various parts together ; and,

* For hints and instructions on this kind of work, the reader Is referred to the article on "Working Drawings : How to Pre- pare and Produce them," in page 7.

lastly, to make some remarks on various accessories and modes of finishing the cabinet, which will greatly improve its appearance, and tend to render it a more elegant article of ornamental furniture.

" There is a great deal of work in a thing of this kind," many an amateur will doubtless say, when he has our Supplement spread out before him, " and it will take a fellow a precious long time to get through with it all." It will, indeed ; but he must remember that the value of all work, and especially of work of this nature, may be taken to increase in geometrical proportion to the time and labour that is bestowed on it ; and with this consolatory reflection let him take courage, and go to work with a will.

First of all, every separate and individual part necessary for the construction of the cabinet, as shown in Fig. 13, will be found in the Supplement, drawn accurately to scale ; and it may be said at once, with regard to Figs. 12 and 14, that in these it is shown how, by an additional number of some of the pieces represented, other cabinets of greater capacity and somewhat different form may be contrived. Thus, in Fig. 12, in the solid part of which, to the. right hand it is shown how the different parts of the cabinet are to be put together, and their mutual relation to one another ; the addition of the dotted lines to the left hand indicate how the amateur may add another wing, so to speak, in this direction, similar to that to the right of the compartment, which, in this form of the cabinet, becomes the central compartment. In Fig. 14, on the other hand, it is shown how a compartment similar to that on the left hand in Fig. 13 may be added to the right, thus exhibiting another form of the cabinet, also consisting of three compartments, but having the larger compartment in the centre, and the smaller compartments one on either side. These alternative forms have been represented, in order to make the fretwork designs given more generally useful.

A scale of inches has been given with the designs, to enable every one who is desirous of using them to ascertain their dimensions with as little trouble as possible, and it will be found, on measurement, that the simple cabinet, as shown in Fig. 13, when made according to the actual dimensions of the parts as drawn, will be 9! inches in height by 8 inches in width, and 3 inches in depth. As to the material, the amateur may use white holly, which may be afterwards ebonised, or walnut wood, or any of the woods ordi- narily used in fret-cutting that may suit his fancy; but he must remember that if he makes the cabinet of the size shown by the working drawings in our Supple- ment, regarding it as a mere toy, or as a cabinet for jewellery and small articles of this kind, the thickness of the material used must not be more than an eight>

i8

A JAPANESE CABINET FOR CHINA AND BRIC-A-BRAC.

of an inch in thickness. If, however, he determines to enlarge the working drawings given, and make the cabinet one and a half times the size indicated — namely, I41°TI inches X 12 inches X 45 inches —he should use stuff three-sixteenths of an inch in thick- ness ; if twice the size — namely, 195 inches X 16 inches X 6 inches — he should use wood a quarter of an inch in thickness, and so on in proportion to the increase of the dimensions of the working drawings supplied. "Nothing further need be said on this point, but we may at once proceed to notice the various parts that are required, and their construction, taking, of course, the simple form of the cabinet as shown in Fig. 13, inas- much as if the amateur can manage to make this, he will have no difficulty in determining what parts are required in duplicate for producing the alternative forms shown in Figs. 12 and 14.

First let us take Fig. I (a), the " upright," which forms the left end of the simple cabinet as in Fig. 13. Of this upright two will be required, one complete, precisely as shown in the working drawing, with all the ornamentation at the top, which will be found to form part of a ledge surrounding the whole extent of the top shelf. In theuprght, which is placed between 'the two ends, dividing the cabinet into two unequal parts, only the ends or horns outside the lines S T and Z V, will be required, and the outline of the top will take the form indicated when the part enclosed by the lines ST, TU, U v, vw, wx, xy and yz, is removed. The fret sawyer is now aware of the difference of form that exists between the upright to the left and the upright in the centre, and will prepare his work accordingly. When the cabinet is made in accordance with the form exhibited in Fig. 12, the ornamentation within the lines already mentioned must be omitted in both uprights. If the amateur desire to make the cabinet of the size shown in the drawings given, he may paste down each part on the wood before commencing the work of sawing, but if he desires to make it on a larger scale, he must prepare his working drawings to paste down, or draw the pattern on the wood.

These two uprights completed to his satisfaction, the amateur will proceed to prepare and cut out the upright that forms the end to the right of the cabinet, as shown in Fig. 13. This is as elaborate a piece of work as the other end and central upright, and will require care and patience in executing it. Its chief difficulty lies in its consisting entirely of right lines, to cut which greater nicety of manipulation is required than for curved lines. The pattern for this upright is given in Fig. 2 (b).

Having got through this part of the work, the ama- teur will naturally turn his attention to the top shelf, which should be made in one piece, as shown in Fig. 3 (c). This piece is cut with two tenons at either end,

which fit into the mortises shown at Tand Y in Fig. 1 (a), and into the corresponding mortises shown at the top in Fig. 2 (e) ; the mortise in the centre fits over the tenon uvwx in Fig. 1 (a), when cut as directed to form the middle upright, and the openings on either side of this central mortise fit over and receive the ends or projections outside the lines ST, zy, in Fig. 1 (a). The bottom shelf must of necessity be made of two pieces, as shown in Fig. 4 (d) and Fig. 5 (e), but in order to give strength to the whole structure these pieces may be cut with tenons, as shown in each by the shaded parts, suitable mortises being cut for their reception in the parts indicated by the double dotted lines at the bottom of Fig. 1 (a) and Fig. 2 (b). A duplicate of Fig. 4 (d) will be required to form the central shelf of the compartment to the right hand, and a duplicate and triplicate of Fig. 5 (e) must be made to furnish the intermediate shelves of the compartment to the left hand. The left end of the central shelf of the right hand compartment may be tenoned in to the middle upright, but there will be a difficulty in providing for this process in the ends of the other shelves as the reader will see on examining the parts of the uprights to which they must be fixed. In the small size of the cabinet the amateur must therefore content himself with glueing up and bradding the parts together, because the thickness of the wood is too slight to bear reduction into very thin tenons, but when wood a quarter of an inch in thickness is used the difficulty vanishes, and tenons of one-eighth of an inch in thick- ness may be made in the ends of the shelves, and mortices of corresponding width cut in the uprights to receive them.

To prevent any difficulty in fitting the different parts together, portions of the front elevation on either side and in the centre have been attached to Fig. 1 (a) and Fig. 2 (b), and the letters attached to the figures of the separate parts are repeated in Fig. 12 as a guide to the amateur artisan.

The parts that have already been mentioned having been cut out and carefully adjusted, it is desirable that they should be fitted together and glued up, slight brads being driven into the ends of the shelves which are devoid of tenons through the uprights, in order to give additional strength and stability to the structure. Until the glue is perfectly dry, the whole should be held firmly together by clamps, two in front and two behind, pressing against each end of the cabinet.

The framework is now complete, and all that is now necessary is to cut out and put in place the doors, the backs of the compartments thus enclosed, and the remaindc : of the ornamentation. The doors are shown in Fig. 8 (h) and Fig. 9 (k) ; plain pieces only of the same size are required for the backs of the com-

TOOL-HOLDERS FOR GRINDING.

19

partments to which the doors are respectively attached. The doors may be attached by small brass hinges, and secured by small catches that may be procured from any ironmonger who supplies tools and materials for fret-sawing.

The ledge round the top shelf is already formed as far as the ends are concerned by the fret-work at the top of each upright ; but to complete it and carry it all round, two pieces as indicated by Fig. 10 (l), and two pieces as shown by Fig. 11 (m), must be pre- pared. These pieces must be inserted between the uprights both in the front and at the back of the top shelf, and resting on it, the longer pieces between the right hand end and the central upright and the shorter pieces between the central upright and the upright to the left. Two pieces of the form shown in Fig. 6 (f) must be cut out to be attached to and from an under ledge to the larger section of the top shelf to the right, and four pieces of the shape shou-n in Fig. 7 (g) to form the under ledges of the smaller portion of the top shelf to the left and the small intermediate shelf below it These ledges are attached, both in front and be- hind ; hence the number required. They should be glued up, and held in place by clamps until the glue is perfectly dry.

Finally, the whole work must be cleaned down, and perfected where necessary by the application of glass- paper. The wood, if of oak, may be left unpolished ; if of white holly, varnished simply, or ebonized ; and if of walnut or mahogany, carefully polished, or var- nished. Of course dark wood will best show up china and other small articles of bric-a-brac. If the cabinet be made three times the linear dimensions given in the Supplement, carving may be resorted to in order to enrich the doors and the fret-work generally. If the wood is of a dark colour, the doors may be lined with a thin panel of gilt wood or cardboard, or with a panel of light wood, so as to afford an agreeable contrast. The salient parts of the design, also, such as the bird, some of the leaves, and the crossing of the bars, may be touched up with a little gilding. The backs of the open compartments can either be left open as they are, if the wall paper against which the cabinet is to stand is of a suitable colour for showing up the articles dis- played on the shelves, or they can be filled in with panels covered with dark velvet, or with looking-glass. It must be remembered that if the openings at the back of the cabinet are thus filled up, there will be no necessity to provide under ledges for the top shelf and intermediate shelf at the back. This portion of the ornamentation will, in this case, be required in front only.

TOOL-HOLDERS FOR GRINDING.

HE ingenuity of the Americans, if it be not proverbial already, bids fair to be' come so before long, for it is certain that in contrivances for lessening labour, and to secure accuracy, ease, and expedition in carrying out work that has hitherto been done by the aid of the hands only, they excel every nation in the world. One of the best examples of the adaptation of mechanical contrivance to ensure correctness of adjustment in a constantly recurring bit of manual work, that must be done not only every day, but possibly many times in the day, and which is done with the utmost ease by a skilled hand, and with diffi- culty and uncertainty by an amateur, is to be found in the Adjustable Planes of the American makers, Stanley and Bailey, in which, by simple pressure on a com- pound lever, the plane-iron may be adjusted for fine or coarse work at pleasure, and set so nicely, that the cutting edge of the plane-iron is always in a plane that is precisely parallel to the surface of the sole of the tool.

It is in setting the plane-iron that nine amateurs out of ten find most difficulty in using the plane, or rather, in fitting it for use, and it is only long and con- tinued practice that will ensure perfect accuracy of ad- justment. Another difficulty that the amateur artisan finds it hard to overcome, is that of grinding edge tools, and more especially chisels, and the cutting irons of planes. It is manifest that in order to reduce the surface of wood to anything approaching regularity and evenness, it is needful that the edge of the tool should be a straight line, or, to borrow Euclid's de- finition of a straight line, should lie evenly between its extreme points : many an amateur will readily confess how difficult he has found it to bring the edge of the tool he is grinding into this necessary condition. He finds it anything but easy to keep the tool throughout the operation in such a position that the evenness of the edge is assured. Even if the face of the grind- stone be accurately true, he is prone to depress the tool towards one or other of the extremities of its edge, and the result is that more is taken off towards the corner that has suffered depression, and the straightness and evenness of the work is destroyed, to the detriment of the work that is done with the tool after the grinding is completed. But in this, as in many other matters, the Americans have come to the rescue, and put forth various practical means and appliances for assuring accuracy in grinding. It is to help amateur artisans generally to grind tools in a thoroughly workmanlike and efficient manner, that the following aids to the performance of this necessary

20

TOOL-HOLDERS FOR GRINDING.

operation, invented by clever American mechanics, are described and represented by illustration in the present paper.

In Fig. I, a grindstone of the old-fashioned form is -.hown. It is supported on a frame made of stuff, 2 inches thick and 5 inches deep, consisting of two

FIG. I. — GRINDSTONE WITH CARVED TOOL-HOLDER.

parallel bars connected by a cross piece at either end, .vhose extremities are mortised into them. This frame, open in the centre for the reception of the grindstone, is supported by four legs, cut after the manner of the legs of a sawing stool, and sloping out- wards on either side of the frame, so as to render the base on which the frame and grindstone rest as large, and therefore as stable as possible. Inside the legs two cleats are nailed, which serve as supports for a shallow trough, containing water to moisten the surface of the grindstone as it revolves.

Such is the framework by which the grindstone is supported. It differs in little, if anything, from the frame usually made for this purpose, except in the means used to moisten the stone. The contrivance for holdingthe plane-iron or other cutting tool to be ground, is equally simple, but like most simple things is effectual for carrying out the purpose for which it is intended. An upright piece A, cut as shown in the illustration, in a curved form, is furnished with notches all along the inner surface, which serve as resting places for the blunt edge of the plane-iron, or the handle of a chisel, for which the notches should be cut in a different manner to those shown in the illus- tration, which are only adapted for the reception of a plane-iron. This piece extends below the frame for about four inches, and is secured by a key. As it fits between the ends of the rails that form the sides of the frame, a block should be driven through it above and below, so that it may be pushed backwards and forwards along that end of the frame to which it is attached. It can be kept in position by means of a key driven through a slot made on each side

of the frame, or it may be so contrived as to be secured in any position in which it has been placed by means of thumbscrews, working through the ends of the cross-pieces and against the upper and lower surface of the frame. The amateur, however, can work this out for himself without any further detail in the way of illustration. The notches in the tool-rest admit, it should be said, of the tool being ground at any desired level ; and, further, enable the operator to keep the edge of the tool in proper contact with the face of the grind- stone along its length from one corner to the other.

In Fig. 2 the same end is attained, though by some- what different means. In this it has been considered unnecessary to show the connection between the grindstone and the tool-holder, or rather the support against which the tool-holder rests, for a new element is introduced into this contrivance in the shape of the tool-holder proper, whereas in Fig. 1 nothing of this kind is required. The tool-holder consists of a piece of hard wood, a little wider than the widest tool that it may be required to grind. Thus, to be generally useful, it should be wider than the widest plane- iron in the possession of the amateur. A clamp, also made of wood and fastened by two screws, secures the tool in place during the operation. In the engraving a chisel is shown, and the screws pass apparently on either side of the narrow part of the chisel and through the holder, being secured by nuts below. Another way of holding the tool would be to pass a small iron frame of the same width as the tool-holder within over both the tool and the holder, fixing it in its place by means of small thumbscrews below. A single clamp of this kind would do equally well for

FIG. 2. — TOOL-HOLDER SUPPORTED BY TOST.

plane or chisel, whereas the clamp shown in the illus- tration is, from the peculiarity of its construction, fitted only to hold down a chisel. The end of the tool-holder furthest away from the grindstone is bevelled, as shown in the illustration. The grindstone itself is placed near a square post, which is fixed in the ground, and grooved horizontally along its face. When the grindstone has been adjusted and placed in

TOOL-HOLDERS FOR GRINDING.

21

a proper position, and the tool secured in the tool- holder, the latter is placed against the post, its bevelled edge fitting into one of the grooves, care being taken to select such a one as will give the tool the proper pitch for ^rinding. The inventor of this clever contrivance claims, as one of its chief merits, that it is possible,

FIG. 3. — NEWTON'S GRINDING REST.

with such adjuncts as the tool-holder and the grooved post, for one man to turn the grindstone, and at the same time hold the tool, and complete the operation in a satisfactory manner.

In Fig. 3 another contrivance is shown, which enables anyone who makes use of it to hold the tool with one hand while turning the grindstone with the other. This is an American novelty, and from its simplicity and practical utility will doubtless attract the attention of the readers of this magazine. It is the patented invention of Mr. A. D. Newton, of Wor- cester, Massachusetts, U.S., who describes it as a grinding rest. It consists of a frame through which the plane-iron or other article to be ground is passed, being held in position by a clamp, which works through the upper part of the frame, and which is raised or depressed at pleasure by means of the thumb- screw shown at the top. The bit is allowed to pro- ject through the frame more or less, according to the angle desired to be imparted to the edge. A small wheel travels against the face of the stone, enabling the operator to keep the iron to be ground steadily fixed in one position. If the name and address of the inventor be given there will be no difficulty in procur- ing it through any importer of American tools and specialties in this country.

There is yet another method of using the grind- stone, which appears to be more simple than any that have yet been described. The grindstone is mounted on a frame similar in construction to that shown in Fig. i, and nothing more is required to be added to the frame than a block of wood across each end, and in close proximity to the face of the grindstone, bevelled to suit the desired pitch for plane-irons, chisels, etc. The blocks of wood should be four inches in width,

and two inches thick, and they should be bevelled along the inner upper edge, as shown in the illustra- tion. The iron to be ground is to be held down upon the bevelled block in such a position as to bring the bevel of the tool in contact with the face of the grind- stone. The tool may be held in this position with one hand while the operator turns the grindstone with the other. The inventor says: — " 'When the stone be- comes glazed by turning in one way, change hands, and turn the stone in the opposite direction, or it may be turned backwards if preferred. When the stone gets a little out of true, I change the handle one quarter of the way around. If the stone is even grit this will cause it to work true again. It is really a luxury for me to grind by this method, so much so, that although I have steam power which I run part of the time I seldom employ it for grinding. It happens that I am usually otherwise occupied when power is running, hence the convenience of the method which I describe." The inventor of this contrivance for making the operation of grinding more easy is a skilled hand, and if it be of so much assistance to him it may easily be conceived how much more useful it will prove as an auxiliary to the amateur. Care must be taken in bevelling the cross timbers that are to act as supports for the tools to be ground. Different tools require different bevels, and hence it is desirable to have a bevelled cross timber at each end of the bench : one being suitable for planes and the other for chisels. The bevels of the instruments to be ground should be well considered before planing down the edge of any

FIG. 4. — BEVELLED BLOCKS AS TOOL-RESTS.

cross timber, and it must be borne in mind that the greater the slope of the bevel to which the cross timber is cut, the less will be the bevel of the tool that is laid upon it. The bevel of a chisel forms a more acute angle with the face of the tool than the bevel of a plane-iron, and hence, the bevel of a cross timber for holding a plane-iron should show a greater slope than that which is designed to hold a chisel.

22

HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.

HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS:

HOW TO ADJUST, CLEAN, AND REPAIR THEM. Biy PAUL N. HASLTJCK.

I. Ancient Modes of Measuring Time.

NY amateur, possessing even but a slight knowledge of mechanism, and having manual dexterity of common aptitude, may undertake to adjust ordinary house- hold clocks with every prospect of a successful result. There are many slight defects, which cause irregularity, or even stoppage, that may be corrected at but a slight cost for time and materials It is not intended to give, in these papers, instructions for effecting those repairs, necessitating the use of costly tools and apparatus or highly-skilled handwork. To replace broken axes, and generally to make new parts, is work fit only for a trained clock-jobber. The amateur may, however, adjust many defects : he may clean clocks of nearly every description, and also he may successfully accomplish many of the minor repairs. It is on these subjects that especial instructions will be given in these papers.

A brief retrospective glance at the subject of time-measurers will not be un- interesting to those who desire to make an acquaintance with the mechanism of clocks. The essential characteristics of a clock may be briefly stated : It is an instrument having a motive power, which may be a spring or a weight, a train of wheels through which the power is transmitted to an escapement, by which the rate of motion is regulated ; index hands and a dial, by which the time is indicated, complete the machine. Before mechanism was in- vented for the purpose of showing the progress of time, the ancients used other means. Clepsydras, or water-clocks, were used in the most remote periods of antiquity. These were vessels arranged for the gradual flow of water from one vessel to another, and thus the flight of time was indicated. This is appa- rently the first form of mechanical time-measurer.

Sun-dials were the first instruments used to divide Ihe day into smaller portions of time. From observ- ing that the sun's rays cast a shadow, the sun-dial was probably suggested. The earliest record of sun-dials appears to be that made in the Book of Kings. Hezekiah (about 740 B.C.) being sick, asked for a sign ; "the sun was set back ten degrees," as shown on the dial of King Ahaz. China was most probably the birthplace of such instruments ; there the study of astronomy was practised upwards of 2000 years B.C.

Pliny ascribed the invention to Anaximander (about 550 B.C.) ; but the dial of Ahaz is two centuries older. Sun-dials were probably used by the Egyptians who dwelt in the valley of the Nile long before the time of Abraham. Homer (950 B.C.) mentions the sun's diurnal and his annual race. Sun-dials are still to be found, and in country places, where watches are seldom used, people tell the time by the sun. Local expres- sions referring to the sun as a measurer of time are common in rural districts. Solar time, shown by these dials, is not the same as mean time indicated by clocks, and they only agree four times a year.

Clepsydras, as time-measurers, are more mechanical in their action. Plato is accredited with having made a clepsydra about 370 B.C. They were introduced into Rome 157 B.C., and orators were timed by this means. Clepsydras having wheels were constructed and used about 245 B.C., and some of these time- measures possess evidence of considerable ingenuity. Ctesibus made a machine of this kind (about 145 B.C.) which indicated the hours, days, months, and signs of the zodiac. A system of wheel-work was employed to register the cumulative effect of the running water.

Horologe was the name first given to clocks constructed on the principle of modern time-keepers. The date of the invention is undetermined. Wheelwork, set in motion by weights and springs, was known in the time of Archimedes, 253 B.C. The graduated dial was known in Rome, and used with sun-dials about the same date. To make a clock it was only necessary to put a pointer to the wheel-work, and to contrive a means of regulating the speed. When this was first effected is not known. Gerbert, after- wards Pope Sylvester II., made a clock, a.d. 996, for Magdeburg. This clock had weights and wheels, and was considered a very wonderful piece of mechanism. This is the first clock of which we have any direct' knowledge. The oldest clock mentioned in England is one formerly fixed at Westminster, A.D. 1288. Gerbert, mentioned above, is usually credited with having produced the first horologe, and from his time rapid progress was made in clock-work. The writers of the eleventh century speak of clocks in such a manner, that they must have been well known at that period. The Greeks and Romans used the same words for clocks and for sun-dials ; thus there is great difficulty in distinguishing which is the machine meant by the word horologiiim. Dante, the Italian poet, seems to be the first author who mentions "an orologe that struck the hours." This must have been a clock such as we now understand it. This fixes the date as the

I. — SUN-DIAL FOR WALL.

HOUSEHOLD CLOCKS.

23

end of the thirteenth century, though probably striking clocks were made before then.

The regulator for horologes up to this date appears to have been some form of fly — a wheel with vanes or wings which,, by impinging upon the air, retarded the speed of the clock-work. The pendulum, now universally used in all kinds of clocks, is generally said to be the invention of Galileo, early in the seven- teenth century. It was, however, used in the University of Cordova some six hundred years previously. It appears that, in its early days, the pendulum was not used successfully, and that up to the time of Galileo the fly arrangement was used as a regulator. In the fourteenth century, an oscillating arm was substituted for the fly, and this met with some success.

Henry de Wyck, a German, erected a clock in 1364 for Charles V. of France. It was controlled by means of a contrivance consisting of a horizontal bar, which pulsated by the action of the escapement. The speed of the pulsations was regulated by the amount of weights hung on the bar, or by their distance from the centre of oscillation. This contrivance acted much like the modem balance-wheel of a watch, without a balance-spring. The common "bottle-jack," used to turn roasting meat, is perhaps a better as well as a more familiar simile. Tycho Brahe and the astro- nomers of the sixteenth century used clocks of this description. Several were erected on the continent of Europe towards the end of the fourteenth century. The vibrating arm of De Wyck was modified by Harris, and applied to a clock in Covent Garden, London, in 1641.

Early in the seventeenth century, Galileo made observations on the isochronous oscillations of sus- pended bodies. In 1639, he published a small treatise embracing the subject. Ten years later, his son is said to have constructed a clock with a pendulum_ Huygens, about the same time, designed improved mechanism for recording the vibrations of a pendulum. He also contrived the present form of motion-work ; that is, the wheels to which the hands are fixed. It allows both the hour-hand and the minute-hand to have the same centre of motion. About this time many experiments were made, and many valuable improve- ments effected. Hooke invented anchor pallets for clocks, which allowed long pendulums to be used. The crown wheel escapement used by De Wyck, and which had bee n employed up to this period, was un- suited for long pendulums on account of the large angular vibration necessary. Long pendulums, vibrat- ing only a short arc, were called Royal Pendulums, and they are still in common use. A small sliding weight was added to the pendulum rod, by which the centre of gravity could be adjusted with greater precision.

George Graham, born in 1673, made many im-

portant improvements in the then existing time- measurers. One of his principal inventions is the compensation of pendulums. He used both mercurial and gridiron compensation pendulums, which are still unsurpassed. The dead-beat escapement now used in clocks was invented and made by Graham, and is still known by his name. Graham died in 1751, leaving a name that will ever remain associated with the per fection of clock-work.

The inventor and manufacturer of the chronometer which secured the award of ^20,000 from the English Parliament in 1767, has special claims for notice here. He was a Yorkshireman, and originally followed the calling of a journeyman carpenter. Large rewards were offered during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries by the Spanish, Dutch, French, and English Governments for an instrument that should determine the longitude at sea within certain specified degrees of accuracy. This stimulated inventive talent, and led to many ingenious devices for the purpose of produc- ing a compensation for variations of temperature. Having paid considerable attention to the require- ments of an instrument adapted for marine service, John Harrison, the journeyman carpenter, in 1735, proceeded to London with a enronometer of his own construction. Thirty years of unremittent labour pro- duced an instrument which was placed on board one of the King's ships in 1758, and proceeded on a voyage to Jamaica.

The Parliament of Queen Anne, in 17 14, passed an Act granting a sum of £10,000 for a method of dis- covering the longitude to within sixty geographical miles; the sum to be increased to £15,000 if within forty miles, and ,£20,000 to be the prize for an instru- ment accurate to within thirty miles, in a voyage from England to America. It was for this prize that John Harrison shipped his chronometer in 1758. On the ship's return, after an absence of five months, the error indicated was only eighteen miles, being within the limit of the largest prize. In 1767 the £20,cco was paid to Harrison, who died nine years afterwards. Considering the undeveloped state of skilled labour as applied to such mechanism, this chronometer was a wonderful production. As the carpenter was able to surpass the workmanship of the most skilful horolo- gists, and carry off the big money prize, it is only reasonable to suppose that an amateur may success- fully adjust and repair his clocks.

Having introduced the subject to our readers, the succeeding papers will be devoted exclusively to the details of actual manipulation. Clocks of various descriptions will be hypothetically taken apart, defects discovered and repaired, the movement being finally rehabilitated and set going anew.

(To be continued.)

24

A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.

A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET,

The Materials and Fittings Used in its Jlfanufaeture,

and the Methods to be Followed in Making

and Finishing it.

VERY amateur is ambitious of making a handsome piece of furniture that may serve in part for the embellishment of his house, and afford unmistakable testi- mony to his skill in carpentry. An article of this kind, which well merits the attention of every amateur carpenter who is moved with the laudable ambition to which I have just alluded, is exhibited in perspective view in the frontispiece to the present- number of Amateur Work, Illustrated. It is a hanging cabinet, or cabinet for hanging against a wall, which is not only fashionable, and therefore much in request at the present time, but which further possesses the merit of being exceedingly useful for holding porcelain, glass, bric-a-brac, and articles of virtu. It may also be utilised as a book-case and newspaper rack, and may even be so adapted as to form a part of, or an adjunct to, a mantelshelf being placed above it, and even connected with it if it so please the maker.

In addition to the perspective view, working drawings of every part of the cabinet and its details are given for the guidance of the amateur, but of these it is not necessary to speak immediately. The only thing to which it is desirable to diiect the attention of the amateur in connection with these working drawings at present, is that by their aid he will be able to prepare fall-sized working drawings for his self-imposed task, and to make and finish the cabinet in such a manner as may be most satisfactory to him. With regard to the chief central compartment, which is furnished with a glass door, it may be said that although the manu facture of the door adds considerably to the labour involved, yet it allows the interior, and all the objects that are placed within it, to be seen, and at the same time protects them from dust, and also from being pulled about by curious persons and meddlesome hands if it be suitably furnished with a lock and key. In our principal illustration the cabinet is shown as ebonized ; and this style of finish, if well done, makes it a hand- some and showy piece of furniture. It is necessary, however, to remind amateurs that the natural wood looks infinitely better than ebonizing badly done. The cabinet will look extremely well in chestnut, if the pores are well filled, and a dead, smooth gioss imparted to the surface by way of finish. The beauty of such an article as this depends as much upon the finish given to the wood as upon the workmanship displayed

by the maker. In large furniture establishments, where numerous articles of this class, at widely differ- ent prices, are exhibited, it will be remarked that the cheap articles and the costly articles often differ from each other more with regard to the finish than in design or durability. Undue cheapness therefore u utterly incompatible with high finish, good workman- ship, and durability, but a strong and tolerably well- made article that is sold at a moderate price, and is spoken of as being " cheap at the money," is only lacking in finish, and will probably do good service to the buyer.

If made up in light wood, the design might be varied by making the spindles and the little columns in front of the brackets connecting the lowest shelf with the principal shelf, of some rich dark or coloured wood, which would afford a pleasing contrast to the main body of the work. The brass fittings, which form the hinges and the escutcheon for the keyhole should be left of their natural colour if the cabinet be ebonized, but if it be of light wood the fittings will look well if they are bronzed. , Silvered fittings look well with ebonized wood, and amateurs who may prefer these to the yellow or gold-looking fittings of brass, will learn how the process may be effected, by turning to the articles on " Electro-plating at Home."

At all events, the ornamental metal work used, whatever may be its colour, should be of some sub- stance, and bold and striking in design. Ornamen"\l hinges, suitable for this kind of work, are kept by m-/St ironmongers, and those who sell carpenters' and joiners' ironmongery; but if hinges of this character cannot be procured, the door may be attached to the side shelf, to which it is hung by an ordinary pair of brass hinges, and the ornamental part cut out of soft sheet brass with a saw suitable for the purpose, and fastened to the wood by brass pins or small screws. This will give the effect, but it will serve no other purpose than that of mere ornament. The idea of thickness may be given to some extent by bevelling the edge of the brass work in every part. It willeive the amateur some trouble to carry out this in a^jm- plete and effective manner, but he must remember that the greater the trouble and labour that he bestows on his work, the greater will be the reward he will reap when his work is completed.

If polished plate glass can be procured for the door, it is to be preferred. If this cannot be obtained, the amateur should seek to obtain some heavy polished sheet glass. If, however, this substitute is not to be had, there is nothing to be done but to get as heavy and as clear a piece of common glass as can be had, which, after all, will look very well.

If a light wood be used the interior of the central compartment may be lined with red cloth, or if red

A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.

25

Fig. 1,

-^-yvv^y

fit. 7.

Fig.G.

rig. 3.

FORKING DRAWINGS AND DETAILS OF USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.

FiO. 1. — Front Elevation, scale 1\ inches to tho foot. Fig. 2.— Side Elevation, on same scale. Fig. 3. — Plan, on same scale. Fig. 4. — Vertical Section, on same scale. Fig. 5.— Detail of Slielf, scale o£ 6 inches to the foot. Fig. 6.— Detail of Bail above Upper Shelves, on same scale. Fig. 7.— Detail of Column below Principal Shelf, on same scale. Fig. 8.— Plan of Column, on same scale. Tho letters in the Figures show corresponding parts in each.

\

s£~~~l~t>*\.

26

A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGLNG WALL-CABLNET.

cloth be considered too expensive, good twilled calico, dyed Turkey red, may be used, as this is a fast colour, and does not fade. A plush or velvet may also be used for lining the cabinet, and if it be ebonized, some light colour, such as gold colour, may be used by way of contrast. The chief difficulty in lining the cabinet is in attaching the material to the sides and back. It •will be noticed that there are two shelves in the interior of the cabinet. If these shelves are run into grooves prepared for them in the side-pieces, or if they are mortised and tenoned into the sides, it will be necessary to line each portion of the compartment separately. Plush or velvet may be attached with a coating of thin glue spread thinly over the wood, but as glue might penetrate through the calico and disfigure it, it is better to manage the lining by straining the calico over thin boards, similar to that which is used for the backing of a picture frame, or pieces of pasteboard cut to fit with exactness, and then fasten them to the back and sides with small brass pins or nails, just sufficient in number to keep the pieces in place. If, however, the shelves be supported on ledges, a method which will be followed by many amateurs who are not well skilled in constructive carpentry, the sides and back may be lined from top to bottom in the manner described, and the ledges for the reception of the shelves screwed against the lining, the screws penetrating through it and the material over which it has been strained, and taking hold in the wood of the sides and back. A third way of managing the lining, but one which in- volves a large amount of labour, is to make some thin frames of wood about an inch in width, and either stretch the lining to the back of these, or fit them in against the lining between the shelving and the top and bottom of the compartment. By this mode of treat- ment the effect produced in the interior will be that of slightly sunken panelling.

If the door can be made to fit against a strip of list, or any other suitable material, so as to make the compartment dust-tight, so much the better. If plates are to stand upon the shelves, whether in the interior or in any of the outer compartments, a square groove should be provided to receive the lowermost part of the edge, or else a slight fillet, about a quarter of an inch square should be nailed to the surface of the shelf for the same purpose. This makes it possible to stand a plate up against the back or in a corner without any danger of its slipping down.

Having said thus much about the materials to be used in making the cabinet, and the various methods of finishing it within and without, it is necessary to turn to a consideration of the working drawings. These, with the exception of some of the details, are presented on a scale of ii inches to the foot. This means that every linear measurement in the full-sized

working drawings to be constructed from these smaller drawings must be exactly eight times the length of the corresponding line in the latter. The amateur, how- ever, need not limit himself to this extension of size, but he may make the cabinet larger or smaller as he may please, only taking care to preserve a due propor- tion in every part.

In Fig. i is shown the front elevation, and this it will be noticed exhibits the form and contour of the back, and the manner in which the different parts are fitted together. The back having been made — and it may be pointed out to the amateur carpenter that the front elevation also furnishes the plan of the back — and accurately cut out to shape, the two boards pro- jecting from it at right angles, and which form the sides of the central cupboard and the compartments above and below it, must be prepared. These are notched at top and bottom to receive the back, and instead of taking out the entire recess from the pro- jecting part in the rear at top to the projecting part in rear at the bottom, tenons should be left at suitable intervals to fit into corresponding mortises cut to receive them in the back. The amateur must not attempt to fix any of the parts together for good and all until every portion has been cut out and the whole duly fitted together, for if he were to insert the tenons of the sides into the mortises cut for them in the back and wedge and glue them up, he would find consider- able difficulty in putting in the shelves that connect the side-pieces. If the back be prepared with shallow grooves to receive the edges of the boards that project from it at right angles, it will add to the firmness of the structure and the general good appearance of the work. In all work of this description it is desirable to fit all the uprights and transverse shelves into shallow grooves prepared for them, if the amateur possess the time, patience, and skill necessary to the due accom- plishment of the work.

The side elevation of the cabinet and the profile of the projecting sides are shown, it should be said, in Fig. 2, which also shows, or rather indicates, the grooves that have to be made for the reception of the corner side-shelves, shaped like the quadrant or fourth part of a circle. The ornamentation of the edges of the shelves along the under part is also shown ; but in this, as in all other details, the amateur is not expected to follow servilely the copy placed before him, but to consult his own taste in their construction and manage- ment. This has been followed to a certain extent in the illustrations, for it will be observed that the turned work of spindles, which form the little galleries in the upper part of the cabinet, as shown in the perspective view, differ both in form and in size from those ex- hibited in the working drawings. With regard to Fig. 2, it may be said, even at the risk of being tedious,

A USEFUL AND ORNAMENTAL HANGING WALL-CABINET.

27

that this presents the appearance of the cabinet when viewed from its left side. If this figure were reversed, it would represent the appearance of the cabinet when viewed from the right side. Bearing this in view, the reader will readily understand that this figure serves, for all practical purposes, to exhibit the side elevation and profile of the cabinet on either side. In making use of the words right and left as relative terms, it must be understood that they refer to the position of the beholder when standing directly opposite the cabinet, and looking full at its front.

In Fig. 3 is represented the plan of die cabinet, looking downwards on it from the top ; and it may be further taken to represent a section of the cabinet taken through the lowermost tier of shelves which happen to be in a continuous line with each other, or, in other words, on a level with each other. The parts representing sections of the back and projecting sides, or these respective pieces in plan, will be readily re- cognized without further explanation ; and, if the amateur experience any difficulty in determining them, he will find considerable assistance in comprehending the diagram by comparing it with the other figures on the same scale. He will note that there is a difference between the quadrants on the right-hand and on the left in Fig. 3. This has been made in order to show the plan or upper surface of one of the topmost side- shelves, having circular holes sunk in it to receive the ends of the little spindles forming the gallery that surmounts it, in the one case to the right, and in the other to the left, the treatment of the under part of the shelf along the bottom edge, which is scalloped, to impart lightness and richness of treatment, by breaking the hard line of the arc. Of course, this ornamentation is to be added or omitted, according to the pleasure, or perhaps skill, of the maker.

The arrangement of the shelves within and at the top and bottom of the large central compartment, and the lowest shelf below the little columns in the side- pieces, and the connection of these shelves with the back and projecting sides, is exhibited in Fig. 4, which will also serve as a vertical section of the cabinet. This figure will render perfectly clear to the amateur the treatment to be adopted with regard to the cap or cornice at the top of the back, and the ornamental fillet below it which is fixed to the surface of the back. The cap and fillet are marked A in Figs. 1, 3, and 4, the front elevation being shown in the first, or Fig. 1, the plan in Fig. 3, and the section in Fig. 4. It may seem that too much care is taken to point out these things, which the more advanced will consider suf- ficiently obvious ; but it must be remembered that this is done in the interest of those who have not yet acquired much skill in carpentry, and for whose better assistance it is needful to be particular.

The method of making the door is sufficiently in- dicated in Figs. 1 and 4, of which the former shows the plan and the latter the section. The inner edges of the outer part of the frame are chamfered in part in the illustration. The chamfering at the top and bottom has been omitted in the illustration. From this the amateur must understand that he may cham- fer or level the edge all round the frame, on its four sides, or chamfer it partly, as shown in the illustration : but however he may treat it, the treatment must be uniform on all sides of the frame — that is to say, as far as the inner edge is concerned.

Fig. 4 further serves to show the section of the cap of the gallery into which the upper part of each spindle is inserted, and which in its turn is tenoned into the side and back. A moulding is run along the edge of the bottom shelf of the cupboard, over and on which the door works, and below the moulding is placed a fillet, or cornice, similar in form to the fillet at A, in Fig. 1. A groove is ploughed along the lower surface of the shelf, near the edge, for the reception of this fillet. In the same way a similar fillet is attached to the narrower shelf at the bottom. The details of the shelf and fillet in both cases are shown in Fig. 5 (b), on a scale of 6 inches to a foot ; but here the edge of the shelf is represented as being simply grooved and not moulded. An independent moulding, attached to the edge of the shelf, as shown in the perspective view, has a better appearance and finishes better, because it shows a greater variety of light and shade than the almost level surface of the slightly grooved edge. The groove in the under part of the shelf for the reception of the pendant fillet is also omitted, but the amateur can readily supply this for himself. In the perspective view of the cabinet the fillet below the cap of the cabinet is represented as a moulding, a method of treatment which is well worthy of attention, and which may be adopted instead of the plain fillet or band in other parts of the cabinet, where this ornament occurs.

Nothing more now remains to be done but to call attention to Figs. 6, 7, and 8, which complete the series of working drawings for the cabinet, and which, like Fig. 5, are given on a scale of 6 inches to the foot for the sake of clearness. Fig. 6 (c) exhibits the detail of the rail above the upper shelves, and the spindles which support it. Another mode of treatment of the edge of the shelf is suggested by the groove above, and the level, or chamfer, of the edge below. In Fig. 7 is shown the elevation (d), and in Fig. 8 the plan of the larger columns below the principal shelf. These columns and the spindles of the galleries will afford an opportunity for an exhibition of the amateur's skill in turning. A good turner will find many ways of enriching the columns and spindles with ornamenta- tion. For those who cannot turn, a band cut in simple

23

BOOTS AND SHOES: HO IV TO MAKE THEM AND MEND 'THEM.

fretwork may take the place of the spindles, and the lower part of the side-pieces may be simply formed by a curve, traced from the arc above the column to the arc below, so as to render the insertion of the columns unnecessary.

BOOTS AND SHOES:

HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MENU THEM. En ABEL EARNS1IAW.

I. Measurement and Materials.

Uppers and all about them — Sizes — The Size-stick — Self, measurement— Modes of Affixing Bottoms — Parts of the Coot —Leather— Lasts— Side-seat — S tand-up r ?nch.

51HERE are few handicrafts of which a knowledge will be found more generally useful than that of the shoemaker. Every- one wears boots or shoes, but everyone is not always able to command the services of the followers of St. Crispin. The traveller, the colonist of an unsettled district, the dweller in an out- of-the-way spot, the soldier, and numberless other persons exceptionally situated, have all of them fre- quently to depend upon themselves for the necessary repairs of their foot coverings. Some, possessed of a fair amount of ingenuity, manage to get over the difficulty in a rough and imperfect way ; others make the attempt and find at its conclusion that they, having succeeded in correcting one fault, have, through the want of knowledge of the relations of the parts of the boot or shoe to each other, created other faults they are unable to repair.

The construction of new boots is often attempted by amateur bootmakers, with results of the most un- satisfactory character. The amateur in these cases simply attempts to imitate the operations he has seen performed, and having had no explanations of the principles of construction which the craftsman bears in mind, fails to do more than spoil his leather. In the necessary explanations of the principles and prac- tice of the craft which follow, as few technical expres- sions as possible will be used. In some esses they cannot be avoided, and in these the reader is: asked to bear their meanings in mind after they are first used and explained.

At one time the shoemaker made his goods through- out, but this is not the case at the present day. The majority of shoemakers only affix the bottoms to the uppers, the latter being manufactured by persons who make a specialty of this branch of the trade. The " bespoke " shoei laker ordinarily buys his uppers from

the manufacturer or merchant, if he is in a fair way of business ; and if in a small way, of the grindery dealer, who also supplies cut leather, hemp, wax, bristles, nails, and the various other small necessaries of his trade. Although it is intended, further on in this series, to give some directions as to the manufacture of uppers, it will be best here to advise the amateur, if possible, to adopt the same course — namely, to purchase uppers, instead of attempting to make them. They can be ordered by letter, and are light enough to be forwarded by post.

The prices vary, according to quality and " cut,' by which is understood the style of construction. Some of the kinds most run upon, for men's boots, are, the blocked side-spring " military whole-cut," in which there is only a single seam in the outside of the upper — that up the back ; the "joined military," in which there is a back seam and two others, one on each side of the spring at the bottom ; the " goloshed " side-spring, having the upper portions at the front and back, techni- cally known as " quarters," of some light leather, such as kid, and the lower portions, or " goloshes," of calf, or other heavier leather. Among other standard uppers are the " Balmoral," a plain laced kind ; and the " Derby," also a laced boot, but so constructed that the lacing portion, where it meets the front, remains out- side, instead of being underneath that part of the upper. This last mentioned is the ordinary shooting boot cut, and has a water-tight tongue. Shoes are usually either "Oxford" cut, by which is understood the plain ordinary laced style, or the " Derby tie," a mode of fastening by lappets, which meet across the instep. Ladies' and children's uppers vary but slightly from these well-known styles, some are almost identi- cal in cut, but all are constructed on a different scale of measurement. Boot and shoe uppers, as kept in stock at the leatherseller's, are of average width, and if the amateur's feet are of normal shape he will have little difficulty in obtaining them to fit. If, on the contrary, his feet are of unusual shape, or he is troubled with bunions or swellings, he will do best by going to a last-maker, and getting a pair of lasts made to suit.

While on this matter it will be advisable to explain the arrangement of the sizes for lasts, uppers, and boots, so that the amateur may know what to ask for when he goes to purchase. All these goods are usually sold in runs of sizes, the smallest being o's, a size only required for young infants. This and the following sizes, i's to 6's, are termed infants'. Next come the boys' and girls' sizes, 7's to 1 o's, at which a break is made. The next sizes are n's, 12's, 13'sand i's, also boys' and girls' sizes, but with a difference of price. Youths' sizes begin at 2's, continuing to 43's or 5's, according to local custom, and men's sizes commence at 5's, in- creasing to io's, and very rarely, to n's and 12's.

BOOTS AND SHOES: HOW TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM, 29

Women's sizes begin at 2's, increasing to 7's, which are worn by one woman in twelve only. Very rarely indeed is a woman's foot found to exceed this measure- ment. The o's size is exactly four inches in length, and the divisions of sizes are in accordance with the old English standard of measurement, the barleycorn, the third of an inch.

In order to ascertain the sizes of feet with correctness, a size-stick is usually made use of by the shoemaker, and the amateur cannot do better than follow his example. A size- stick will cost two shillings. Should this not be obtainable one may easily be constructed ; it is simply a rule divided by thirds of an inch, having a wooden rest at one end, placed exactly at a right angle, and another, sliding loosely over the rules, also placed at the same angle, so that when the foot is between the two, the movable one marks the length. To the size thus shown two and a-half or three sizes must be added to give the size of the boot required, if for a man. A little extra length is necessary if the boots to be made are heavy ones. Two or two and a-half sizes must be allowed for a woman, and two sizes for a child.

In all cases where the feet are otherwise than of average shape and width, it will be necessary that the upper manufacturer's order should be accom- panied by a complete set of measurements. The diagram given herewith will enable them to be taken correctly. The length of the foot is first ascertained by the size- stick A tape measure is next passed round the foot at its widest part,

namely, at the ball, taking care that the toe joints on each side are within it. This gives what, here- after will be spoken of as the joint measurement: it is shown on the diagram by the line A B. The next point of measurement is the instep : the girth of this is taken from the centre of the arch beneath the foot to the corresponding part on the top. The line C D shows this measurement, which ordinarily is about half-an-inch greater than that of the ioint. The heel

I. — DIAGRAM ILLUSTRATIVE OF SELF- MEASUREMENT.

FIG. 2. — THE SHOEMAKER'S BENCH.

measure is next in order. The tape is passed lound the fo-t from the centre of the upper curve, or "throat," as it is curiously termed by shoemakers, enclosing the back of the heel, as shown by the line E F. It only remains now to take the ankle measurement : the place it is taken at is shown by the line G H. This, in the majority of cases, will be found the same as that of the joint, but it is advisable, in ordering uppers, that it should be separately stated. If these details are plainly written out, and forwarded to the manu- facturer, the amateur's trouble in regard to his uppers will be slight.

Beginning, then, with the methods of affixing the bottoms, it will be necessary the amateur should understand that there are no less than four principal ones in vogue. Each of these he must learn to distinguish, even should his practice go no further than mending, for a plan which may answer excellently in repairing a boot made in one way, may utterly fail upon one constructed on another system. The different systems are, hand -sewing, machine -sewing, riveting and peg- ging. The other methods are of but small importance; for all practical purposes of these articles, screw- ing may be considered identical with riveting, and gutta percha bottoming will be separately dealt with. Each of the sys- tems has certain merits to recommend it, but the palm must certainly be accorded to the first named, as being the one having the most merits and least defects. At the same time, it must be said that the hand-sewing me- thod presents the most difficulties to the amateur, and occupies the greatest length of time. Machine-sewing is an invention of the last quarter of a century. Its use is almost entirely confined to the wholesale boot manufactories ; and were it not for the question of repairing it would not be necessary to refer to it here. These two systems pro- duce boots which closely resemble each other, never- theless their construction is radically different. Where the difference arises will be shown further on. Riveting is also a new system, comparatively speak-

3°

BOOTS AND SHOES: HO W TO MAKE THEM AND MEND THEM.

ing, and is not only the quickest but the easiest for the amateur to master. Riveted boots can easily be distinguished from other kinds by an examination of the soles, which display a continuous line of metal rivets, usually brass or iron, running all the way round them, the points being clenched inside. Pegging is also not a difficult system to understand. Pegged boots are made in a way much resembling riveted ones, but in lieu of metal rivets being made use of to attach the soles, wooden pegs are substituted. This class of boots suit best for damp climates, as moisture swells the pegs and makes them hold firmly, while dryness contracts them, and causes them to withdraw, rendering the boots useless. Pegged boots will be known by the rows of square-cut pegs, placed diamond fashion, which appear on the soles, and by the points, which, though cut off level, appear on the insides.

It will now be necessary to describe the parts of a boot, and their uses. First in order is the inner sole, the foundation on which the boot is built. This is a piece of moderately firm but flexible leather cut to the shape of the bottom of the last : in wear it comes next to the foot when a sock is not used. Its thickness should be not less than one-eighth of an inch. It is usually cut from the belly portions of the tanned hide, the trade name for these parts being " crop bellies." For hand-sewn, or machine-sewn boots, lighter inner soles may be used than for riveted or pegged ones. Without moderately stout and firm inner soles, boots made on either of these latter systems are practically valueless. The stiffening is the next portion needing to be described. This consists of a piece of leather about the same thickness as that used for the inner sole. In shape it is usually the half of a long oval, a stiffening for a man's boot of ordinary size having a depth of n\ inches and a length of 7; inches; those intended for women's or children's boots or shoes being proportionately smaller. A variation is made in the shape of the stiffening for goloshed boots ; in these it is simply a straight strip of leather with a depth of 2 inches. The object of the stiffening is to keep the heel of the foot in its proper position, and prevent it from turning over, and so twisting the ankle. In order that it may effect this purpose, the leather of which it is composed needs to be at the same time sufficiently strong to withstand severe strains, and still retain its position, and yet not be so hard as to hurt the foot. The stiffening is placed between the lining of the upper and the outside leather. The necessary preparation of it will be described hereafter. We now come to the welt. Welts are only required in making hand-sewn boots, in all other kinds middle or underneath half-soles are used instead of them. The welt is a straight strip of tanned leather cut from the shoulder portion of the hide, where the texture of the fibre is not so

close and unyielding as it is in the butt (the back and side parts). Leather for welts is dressed with a small amount of grease — that is to say, the grease is forced into the leather, saturating the fibre, and making it very pliable and easy to manipulate. A strip of welting, five-eighths of an inch wide will make one pair of welts by cutting it lengthwise, holding the knife in a slanting direction, the cut commencing one-eighth of an inch from the edge, and terminating the same distance from the edge on the under side. The use of the welt is to afford a means of attaching the sole to the inner sole and upper. In the work it is carried round the edge of the boot upper after it is lasted, and is sewn to both, the sole afterwards being attached to it by a second seam. The reason machine-sewn boots require no welt is that a single direct seam can be made by the sole-sewing machine, from the outside to the inside of the boot, but in hand-sewn making this is practically impossible, except in the " waist " (that part of the boot under the arch of the foot). Consequently the welt, which, though most shoemakers will not admit it to be so, is only an expedient, has to be made use of as the only means by which sole, upper, and in- sole can be united. The middle soles, which to all appearance take the place of the welts in boots bottomed by other processes, are simply pieces of solid leather extending from the toe part of the boot to the commencement of the waist. The thickness of these varies according as the boots may be required to be bottomed. Any kind of sole leather may be used for this purpose, as long as it is solid in texture and of level substance. The soles almost everyone under- stands all about. They are cut from the best part of the leather, the butt, and should be firm, and show, when in the rough state, a close and solid appearance at the edges. The preparation of sole leather is one of those things which is not done better abroad ; and the amateur, when he goes to purchase, will do best by asking for sole leather of British oak-bark tannage. He will find it will last longest, be easy to work, and look best when made up. The split-lifts, which are required immediately after the soles, are strips of sole leather divided in the same way as welts, but about a quarter of an inch wider. They are used as founda- tions for the heels, being first attached to the sole previous to any of the lifts (the next portion to be described) being put on. The lifts are pieces of ordi- nary sole leather, cut out the shape the heel is to be made, and fixed one upon another until the required height is obtained. Lastly, there is the top-piece, that portion of the heel which comes into contact with the ground in walking. This is, or should be, cut from the best and stoutest leather which can be obtained.

The amateur will now be able to recognize any portion of a boot, and will be able to ask for his

PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.

materials, at the leatherseller's shop, in such a way that the shopkeeper will understand him, and have no difficulty in so doing.

The appliances which are absolutely necessary to the amateur to enable him to make or repair in a simple fashion, are neither numerous nor costly. If, as is most probable, his efforts are confined to making or repairing the boots of the members of the family circle, he will do best to select one of the systems mentioned, say riveting or pegging, supply himself with lasts of the sizes required, and with a side-seat, such as is seen in every shoemaker's shop, for use when making hand-work or finishing off. Any stool or box may be made to do duty for this, if necessary. If he uses the riveting system, he will need a stand-up bench, which he may construct by the aid of the illustration above. The front posts should be sur- mounted by a piece of stout boarding. _He will also need an iron upright stand and socket, which may be bought at any shoe-engineer's and at many leather- seller's shops, for three shillings, or thereabouts. Iron lasts are used for making and mending riveted and machine-sewn boots upon. These can be obtained at the same shops as the stands and sockets, costing from one to two shillings each for small sizes, rising to five shillings per pair for men's. They will also answer the amateur's purpose for most kinds of jobbing work con- nected with the repairs of the soles or heels. Wooden lasts, which are used for making hand-sewn and pegged boots, are less costly, about one-half the above prices being an average. Where it is impossible to obtain iron lasts, for making or mending riveted boots, wooden ones may be used, the bottoms being covered with a thin iron plate.

The necessary tools and their uses will be described in the next paper.

PHOTOGRAPHY:

ITS TRIA'CIPLES AND PRACTICE.

By TE01TAS BUXMAN

I. The Apparatus.

HE beautiful and pleasing art of Photo- graphy is one of the most delightful pursuits in which it is possible to en- gage, whether as a means of recreation or as a remunerative employment. Un- like many occupations, not only are its results of a satisfactory character, but the processes by which they are arrived at are in themselves a never-failing source of interest and delight. To unfold in clear and simple language the principles of this beautiful art, to give

instructions for its successful practice, and to point out its most useful applications, will be the objects aimed at in the present series of papers.

The word " Photography " is derived from two Greek words (fi/ws, photos, light, and grafiho, I describe or paint), and signifies the art of producing permanent pictures by the aid of light. In principle, the art depends upon the power which light possesses of acting chemically upon various substances, the most important of which are some of the salts of silver. It is not my intention to enter fully into the theory of the chemical action of light, but a brief sketch of the manner in which the salts of silver are affected in the processes appertaining to photography will be incidentally given in the course of these papers, as without some little knowledge of the scientific prin- ciples involved, no great perfection in the art can possibly be attained.

At the commencement of our study of photography, it will be sufficient to bear in mind that certain of the salts of silver, notably the chloride and the iodide, speedily blacken under the influence of light, whether the light falls upon them directly, or is reflected from other objects. To produce a picture, it is necessary to concentrate upon a plate coated with one or other of these sensitive salts the light which is reflected from the object or objects it is desired to portray. This brings us at once to the consideration of the most important piece of apparatus which the photographer employs, and that is the camera. This piece of appa- ratus, which is represented in Fig. I, is a modification of the optical instrument long known to the optician, and also to the general public, as the "camera ob- scura." It is essentially a dark chamber, or box, to the front of which a lens is fitted, while the back is pro- vided with a ground-glass screen, upon which the image of external objects may be focussed. In the photographic camera this screen can be removed, and replaced by a dark slide, containing the sensitive plate upon which the photograph is to be produced. The camera is, moreover, usually constructed in two parts, the front part containing the lens, and being fixed to the frame, while the hinder part contains the ground- glass focussing screen, and is movable, so that the camera may be adjusted for different distances. This form of camera is known as the "sliding body" camera, and is very useful for home or studio use, but is not very portable. In the illustration, A is the lens, which can be moved backwards and forwards by means of the milled head D, which, being turned by the hand, works a rack and pinion. The front part of the camera (c) is fixed, but the hinder part (b) is movable at the will of the photographer, who slides it backwards or forwards until the image upon the glass screen (e) is thoroughly sharp, when he fixes the sliding back in

PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.

the required position by tightening the screw in the frame. The final adjustment of the focus is made by means of the milled head (d), which moves the lens backwards or forwards until the necessary sharpness is obtained.

Another form of camera which is extremely useful, and which is also much more portable than the sliding- body camera, is the "bellows-body" instrument, in which the body is constructed like the bellows of a concertina or an accordion, which be may moved inwards or outwards either by the hands or by an endless screw working beneath the body of the camera, and turned by a small handle.

Whatever be the form of camera employed, its essen- tial properties are, easy movement of the body upon the frame when focussing, and perfect exclusion of light. It is therefore neces- sary that it should be well made of thoroughly seasoned material, and if the camera is required for use in hot countries, it should be well bound with brass.

At the very commencement of the photographer's career, it is of the utmost importance that he should thoroughly appreciate the necessity which exists that his camera, his dark slides, and his dark room should be perfectly " light-tight ;" nothing short of absolute perfection in this respect will ensure even moderate success.

An important part of the camera is the " dark slide," in which the sensi- tive plate is placed in order that it may be ex- posed to the action of light in the camera. This slide consists of a flat box, having at its back a hinged flap, which may be raised in order to insert the sen- sitive plate, and which is kept in its place when shut by means of metal checks. In front the dark slide has a shutter which can be pulled up so as to expose the front side of the plate ; this shutter is provided with a catch at the bottom, and a hinge, which prevents it being altogether pulled out of the slide. Between the flap at the back, and the shutter, in front, of the dark slide, is a movable "carrier," which is a piece of light wood the size of the slide, and having an aperture in the centre the size of the plate

FIG. 1. — THE SLIDING BODY CAMERA,

FIG. 2. — SECTIONAL VIEW OF CAMERA AND LLNS Of

are are

it is desired to expose. The corners of the aperture are made of silver wire, and upon these corners the sensitive plate rests. It will be seen from this that the carrier serves as a kind of frame for the sensitive plate, which it supports only at the extreme corners, so that the body of the plate is exposed when the shutter in front of the slide is pulled up. With the dark slides of larger cameras, several carriers, the apertures of -which are of different sizes, are supplied, so that with a large camera, pictures of different sizes may be taken. For instance, a "whole plate" camera will take pictures which measure 8i inches by 6£ inches, or smaller ones, the size of the picture depending upon the carrier employed.

As before remarked, the ground-glass screen of the camera can be removed, and the dark slide with the sensitive plate is then sub- stituted for it, so that the rays of light which enter the camera through the lens are focussed upon the sensitive plate in just the same way as upon the glass screen ; if this were not done, the picture would be blurred and indistinct.

A most important part of the camera is the lens, as upon its quality the character of the pictures to be produced very largely depends. One of the most necessary characteristics of a good lens is "achro- matism." No single lens is capable of bringing all the rays of light which pass through it to the same focus, and there conse- quently surrounds the image formed a coloured ring. The best lenses, for all optical purposes, are really combinations of two or more lenses, as it is found that by employ- ing two lenses of suitable curvature and of different kinds of glass, the defect chromatism" may be remedied. Such lenses termed "achromatic," and no other lenses at all suitable for photographic purposes.

Another defect in a single lens, which arises from a similar cause, is "spherical aberration." By this term is signified the inability of a lens to bring all the rays of light to a focus at the same time. Consequently, when the centre of the field is perfectly sharp, the circumference will be blurred and indistinct, and vice versa. This defect may be partially remedied by

PHOTOGRAPHY: ITS PRINCIPLES AND PRACTICE.

3.1

using "stops" or diaphragms which cut off all the rays which fall upon a lens except those passing through or near the centre ; but it can only be effectually counteracted by employing a combination of two lenses in place of a single one.

As both spherical aberration and chromatism are fatal to success in photography, it is of the first im- portance that the photographer should possess a lens free from these defects. In purchasing from first-rate opticians, all that is necessary is to select the kind of lens required from his catalogue, and it is sure to be as there described; but in purchasing cheap lenses, and especially second-hand ones, it is wise to obtain them first " on approval," and not to purchase until you are quite sure that the lens is free from de- fects. The ordinary com- bination-lens, which is em- ployed by photographers, consists of two lenses fixed in brass rubes, which slide one in the other, and are actuated by a rack and pinion movement, as described above. In the front of the camera is a. brass flange, surrounding the circular aperture, through which the light enters, and into this flange the lens is screwed.

In most lens-tubes a slit is cut in the tube, between ,the two lenses, and into this slit a diaphragm or stop is placed. These diaphragms consist of metal plates, each with l circular hole in the centre, the metal being blackened tn both sides to prevent reflection. They are usually supplied in sets, the apertures varying in size. Their object is to concentrate the light by using enly the central portions of the lens. In this way they bring objects into focus which would otherwise be blurred and indistinct. In using them, it is neces- sary to remember that the smaller the aperture of the stop, the sharper will be the picture, but the greater will be the length of exposure necessary to produce it. For various purposes various lenses are employed, and the particular kind of lens required in any instance depends entirely upon the purpose to which it is to be applied — a lens suitable for taking portraits being of a different character from that required for taking views 01 for copying.

A very useful lens for general purposes is sold at

FIG. 3.— STUDIO STAND.

FIG. 4. — PORTABLE STAND.

most photographic repositories, and is known as the " 1 B Quick-acting Portrait Lens ;" the best makers are Dallmeyer and Ross. The cost of such a lens, with a set of Waterhouse diaphragms, would be about six guineas. Cheaper lenses, suitable for quarter-plate cameras, may be obtained of respectable makers for from two to three guineas. The readers of this maga- zine may also like to know approxi- mately the cost of a good camera, the camera being usually sold sepa- rate from the lens. The price of a camera depends upon its size and upon its portability. For amateur purposes, a quarter-plate size will be found sufficiently large, and a good one may be obtained for about eighteen shillings or a guinea. A very portable pocket camera, fitted with the most modern improvements, may be obtained for about three pounds.*

For those who require to take pictures of various sizes, the most useful camera is a whole-plate one, which would cost about six pounds. Of course, cameras and lenses may be occasionally met with second-hand for much less, but it is necessary to exercise great caution in making a purchase.

Now that I have described the camera and its appendages, the reader may turn to Fig. 2, which is a sectional view of a camera and lens, and will serve to make clear the foregoing descriptions. A is the brass tube containing the lenses (l and l), the latter being movable by means of the rack and pinion (d). c is the front portion of the camera, which is fixed, and in which the hinder portion (b) slides. The ground-glass screen (e) fits into grooves in the sides of the camera, and can be removed and replaced by the dark slide. The front of the tube containing the lenses is provided with a cap, which is removed while the plate is being exposed, and is replaced at the end of the period of exposure. The sliding part of the camera having been adjusted, it is fixed in position by the nut and screw (n).

In order to see clearly the image on the ground-glass screen, it is necessary to have a " focussing cloth " with which to cover the head and shut out all light while focussing. This will readily be supplied in most households, as its only requisite is sufficient thickness to exclude light. If, however, something of a more professional appearance be desired, black velvet is the most suitable ma-

* Messrs. Newton and Co., of Fleet Street, London, supply an extremely good portable bellows body camera with leu3 and stand complete f~ Sour guineas.

Fia. 5. —

PORTABLE

STAND, FOLDED UP

IS 2

34

FILTERING CISTERNS FOR RAINWATER.

terial ; this may be obtained at most dealers in photo- graphic apparatus for about two shillings per yard.

About two yards of black " Silesia " lining, which costs about sixpence per yard, is a cheap substitute for velvet, and answers equally well.

Next to the lens and camera, the most necessary piece of apparatus is a stand, which is usually made in the form of a tripod, the most suitable wood being ash. Its essential quality is stability, and this must not be sacrificed for any other good quality, as the least vibra- tion of the stand will result in defective photographs.

The kind of stand required depends almost entirely upon the kind of work which it is intended to perform. For home or studio use the more solid and heavy the stand is the better, but for outdoor photography porta- bility is, of course, a desideratum. A fairly light portable stand and top may generally be obtained for about fifteen shillings, but care must be exercised in seeing that stability has not been sacrificed to porta- bility. There are at present in the market several stands which are pre-eminently portable, but they are seldom sufficiently rigid, and a thoroughly portable, and at the same time perfectly stable, stand has yet to be made. In Fig. 3 is given an illustration of a good studio stand, the top of which can be raised or lowered at pleasure by means of the handle. Being upon castors this stand can be readily moved from one part of the studio to another ; the top may also be rotated when necessary.

Fig. 4 shows one of the best forms of the portable stand ; the top fixes on the frame by means of a screw and nut, the screw passing through the hole in the centre of the frame, which is of iron. This stand is very rigid, and is in this respect thoroughly reliable, but its portability is not all that could be desired. It is on the whole the best kind of portable stand that has yet been made, and for short journeys nothing better need be wished for or sought for, as its weight is by no means wearisome to the person who carries it. In Fig. 5 this stand is shown folded up and ready for transportation from place to place.

FILTERING CISTERNS FOR RAIN-WATER.

WRITER in the Rural New Yorker has recently called attention to the storage of rain-water for drinking, cook- ing, and all domestic purposes, and has given the following description of the method he has adopted for providing himself and his household with a constant supply of sweet and whole- some water, from a source which, in ninety-nine cases

out of a hundred, and perhaps to even a greater extent, is disregarded in this country. The importance of storing, purifying, and utilising rain-water has been frequently urged by writers on sanitary questions, and cannot be too strongly or too frequently insisted on. The method about to be described is at once practi- cable, simple, and easy, and one which any amateur, with the assistance of a labourer, may easily carry out for himself. Mr. Dodge, the writer of the article, says : —

" Our bread and meat are no more important for our well-being than the liquids we drink. The outlay for food is so constant, that purchasing all the variety of which our solid nutriment is composed has with us become a second nature, but when we see water upon every side, and are often injured by the too plentiful torrents from above, we find it difficult to realise that there may at some time be a scarcity, and are not willing to bestow much labour in laying by a store of this luxury and necessity of every day and almost every hour. Experience, however, has taught us that, although the heavenly supply is generally bounteous, its fall is so irregular that, in general, provision in time of plenty must be made for coming times of scarcity, and wells and cisterns were hence needed and con- structed by the most ancient of our race.

" For many years my daily drink at Montclair, New Jersey, was rain-water, falling upon an ordinary tin roof, covered with some sort of metallic paint, said to contain no lead, and flowing into a large cemented brick cistern, whence it was pumped into the kitchen. This cistern differed from the usual construction in this manner : across the bottom, about three feet nearer one side than the other, was excavated a trough or ditch about two feet wide and two feet deep ; along the centre of this depression was built a brick wall from the bottom up to the top of the cistern, and having a few openings left through it at the very bottom. The whole cistern, bottom, sides, and canal included, was then cemented as usual, excepting the division wall. Upon each side of the wall, at its base, from six inches to a foot of charcoal were laid, and covered with well-washed stones to a further height of six inches, merely to keep the charcoal from floating. The rain-water passing from the roof into the larger division of the cistern, passes through the stone cover- ing, the charcoal, the wall, the charcoal upon the other side, lastly, the stones, and is now ready for the pump placed in this smaller part. It is much better that the water at first pass into the larger division, as the filtra- tion will be slower, and the cistern not so likely to overflow under a very heavy rainfall. I used this cis- tern for many years, and was troubled only once, when some toads made their entrance at the top, which was just at the surface of the ground, soon making their

FILTERING CISTERNS FOR RAIN-WATER.

35

presence known by a decided change in the flavour of the water.

" If your house chances to be in a dusty situation, several plans will suggest themselves whereby a few gallons at the first of each rain may be prevented from entering the cistern, but I employed no such means, and never felt the need of any. Should the house be small, and therefore the supply of water from its roof be limited, do not lessen the size of the cistern, bet rather increase it, for with one of less capacity some of the supply must occasionally be al'.owed to go to waste during a wet time, and you will suffer in a drought, w-hereas a cistern that never overflows is the more to be relied upon in a long season without rain.

" Rainfall varies exceedingly in different places, and even in the same situation it is impossible to foretell

DIAGRAM SHOWING CONSTRUCTION OF CISTERN.

the amount to be expected during any short period of time, but the most careful observations show us that about four feet in depth descends at New York and vicinity every year, or nearly one inch a week. If this amount were to be furnished uniformly every week, the size of a cistern need only be sufficient to contain one week's supply, but we often have periods of four weeks without receiving the average of one, and we must build accordingly.

" The weekly average of one inch equals one cubic foot upon every 12 feet of surface, or 3,630 cubic feet upon an acre, weighing about 113 tons. Upon a roof 40 feet by 40 feet, 1,600 square feet, it would be 133 cubic fret, 1,037 gallons, or about 26 barrels of 40 gallon . each. A cistern eight feet across and ten feet deep rould contain 502 cubic feet ; and one of 10 feet p.cross and 10 feet deep, 785 cubic feet, or 6,120 gal- lons— about the average fall upon a roof of the above size for six weeks ; while the smaller cistern would hold 3,900 gallons, or a little less than four weeks' rainfall. The weekly supply of 1,037 gallons is equal to 148 gallons per day, or neasly 15 gallons to each individual of a family of ten. This is certainly enough,

and more than enough, if used as it should be ; but where water is plentiful it is wasted, and in our capri- cious climate, whether we depend upon wells or cisterns, it is wise to waste no water at all, at least during the warm summer months, and lay by not for a wet but a dry day."

It may be useful to the amateur if Mr. Dodge's remarks be supplemented by a diagram exhibiting the construction of the cistern, and some further remark? in explanation of the diagram itself, and the method t's be adopted in building the cistern. The diagram, it should be said, does not show the containing or outer walls of the cistern : these are left to the imagination of the amateur, and only the coating of cement with which the walls are lined is shown in the illustration. In this, w, x, Y, z shows the excavation that must be made for the cistern, and supposing the diagram to exhibit, as it does, a section of the cistern, the recep- tacle for the water will be, when finished, taking the relative proportions of the different parts into conside- ration, just about 9 feet wide and 45 feet deep. Of course, the dimensions and capacity of the cistern must be left to the amateur himself, who may have decided on constructing one ; all that it is sought to do here is to bring before him the method of making the cistern in a manner that shall admit of no mistake. Of course, the excavation must be made greater in breadth and depth than the dimensions given to allow for the surrounding walls and the bottom. The walls may be of brick, cemented within, and backed with concrete or puddled clay without, or of monolithic concrete, as the amateur may choose, but the bottom, in any case, should be made of concrete. The trench running across the bottom of the cistern is two feet broad and two feet deep ; this trench is represented in the illustration by E, F, H, G. In the middle of this opening is built up a nine-inch brick wall, or a party- wall of concrete, shown by c, D, Along the bottom of the wall openings are left at intervals ; one of these openings is shown in section at D. The party-wall divides the entire space into the larger outer cistern A, and the smaller inner cistern B. Supposing the breadth from E to F to be two feet, and the wall nine inches, spaces of 7-k inches will be left on each side of the wall. These are filled to three-fourths the height, or for 18 inches, with lumps of charcoal, smooth pebbles from one to three inches in diameter being laid along the top of the charcoal till the trench is filled up. The cistern is so constructed that the water from the roof enters A ; it passes downwards through the stones and charcoal, as shown by the arrow at F, passes through the opening, and forces its way upwards in the direc- tion of the arrow at E into the cistern B, in which it rises to the level of the water in A, to be drawn thence for use by a small pump.

36

A SIMPLE FRET-SAWING MACHINE.

A SIMPLE FRET-SAWING MACHINE.

CORRESPONDENT of an American contemporary gives in its columns the accompanying design for a home-made scroll saw, which has been reproduced here as a suggestion to amateur artisans who may be desirous of constructing an appliance of this kind. It is stated by the inventor, that he has had it in use for five years, and that it has given him great satisfaction ; the test of time and trial is therefore entirely in its favour.

With reference to its capability and the great range of its power, the inventor states that it will cut stuffs from one-eighth of an inch in thickness, to 5 and even 6 inches. A scroll saw that will do this will do everything that is required or desired of a saw of this description, for it may be used for cutting out the most delicate fret-work, or made available for fashioning a bracket or cantilever, which is of considerable thick- ness, and which is to be finished by the carver's tools. As far as regulation of power is concerned, it re- sembles the Nasmyth hammer, which can be made to deliver a blow with such gentleness as to crack a nut without crushing it, or be brought down with force sufficient to forge the largest engine shafts, and to crush a piece of three-inch timber, and send it flying into splinters.

Its power and capability depend altogether upon its being properly constructed and put together ; and on this account, although the method of making the machine is clearly shown in the illustration, a careful description of its various parts and their connection, and the working and action of the contrivance is de- sirable. The representation of the machine is given in perspective, but any amateur will be, or ought to be, able to make working drawings for himself, if he require them, exhibiting it in plan, section, and eleva- tions.

First of all a stout frame-work must be made. In the machine made by the inventor for his own use, the uprights were formed of two pieces of spruce, mea- suring 4 inches by 4 inches, and apparently from 6 to 7 feet long. This, however, is not given in the too brief description that accompanies the saw. The omission is due to the fact the writers on technical subjects too often take for granted on the part of their readers, the possession of special knowledge with re- gard to these matters, and so too often fall into the error of leaving out particulars which, as a matter of course, a*e well known to themselves, and which, con- sequently, they imagine to be self-evident to every- body else. Those who contribute to the pages of this magazine, and who may be inclined to describe their

experience in carrying out any kind of amateur work, for the benefit and guidance of their brother handicrafts- men, must be clear and careful both in illustration and description, even to what may appear an undue excess of minuteness, and the present opportunity to give this caution and lay down this rule at starting, is too good to be lost. No apology is necessary for this slight digression, which, being driven home, may be appro- priately clenched by the old saying, Verbum sat sapienti.

To return, however, to the construction of the frame. The two stout uprights are mortised at the lower end into stout pieces of plank, screwed down to the floor of the workshop — for the machine must of necessity be a fixture, if the treadle be hinged to the floor, as shown in the illustration. If the machine is to be movable from place to place, transverse pieces should be placed between the timbers which receive the uprights, so as to form a broad framing, and to the piece that forms the front of the frame the treadle may be hinged. The top of each upright is tenoned, and passed through a mortise in the end of a transverse beam 6 feet long, 4 inches broad, and about 3 inches thick, the beam being kept in place by pegs, through holes cut to receive them in the tenons at the top of the uprights. The space between the uprights is stated to be 5 feet 6 inches in the clear, and this affords a valuable guide to the construction of the outer frame.

The inner frame is made of pine, 3 inches wide and 2 inches thick, but to impart additional strength to it, the transverse pieces are composed of two pieces of inch pine with the grain reversed, glued together, and secured by screws. Into these pieces the up- rights or sides are framed and pegged in the usual way. A piece of iron plate similar to that which is used for the track on which sliding-doors are moved backwards and forwards, is fastened to the inner surface of the uprights of the outer frame, and other pieces of iron fitted to work against this track are fastened one to either upright of the inner frame on the outer surface. For the easy working of the machine, it is obvious that the friction between the outer and inner frames should be reduced to a minimum.

The spring at the top of the frame is made of three pieces of ash, three-eighths of an inch in thick- ness, planed gradually down from the centre of either extremity until the material is reduced to the thick- ness of one-eighth of an inch at each end. A bolt is passed through the centre of the ashen spring and the transverse beam that forms the top of the outer frame, the spring and the beam being drawn together as tightly as possible by a nut at the upper end of the bolt. It will be noticed, in making the spring, that

A SIMPLE FRET-SAWING MACHINE.

37

each piece of ash is shorter by about 4 or 5 inches than the piece immediately above it. In general principle of construction it is similar to the iron springs of this form used for carts and carriages. A hole is made at either end of the spring to admit of its connection with the inner frame by means of a short piece of small rope or chain. If rope is used, a knot must be made to prevent its slipping through the spring ; but, if chain is used, it may be secured by passing a nail or piece of wire through the last link or last link but one. The lower end of the rope must be formed into a loop, and this loop — or, if a chain be used, the last link of the chain — must be passed over a hook inserted in the end of the upper part of the inner frame, as shown in the illustration.

The treadle, as it has been said, must be hinged at one end to the floor, as shown in the illustration, or, if a frame be made to form the base of the machine, to that part of it which forms the front The other end rests on a strap or piece of twisted gut, attached to the bot- tom part of the inner frame by two metal eyes. It is as well that grooves should be cut in either side of the free end of the treadle into which the gut may fall, and thus be held in place. The action of the machine is so simple that it scarcely needs explanation. When the treadle is pressed

downwards by the foot, the inner frame is brought down, to be pulled up again by the recoil of the spring as soon as the pressure of the foot is with- drawn. Two battens are screwed to the front and back respectively of the outer frame, to afford a sup- port for the table, through a hole in the centre of which the saw passes, and which forms a support for the work to be sawn. This table is 2 feet long and 18 inches in width. It has been said that the space between the uprights of the outer frame is 5 feet 6 inches in the clear. The inventor of the frame, in his too brief description of it, says, " Deducting the space occupied by the inside frame and the slides, it leaves 4 feet 1 1 ; inches net (between the inner surfaces of Ihe sides of the inner frame), which gives 2 feef 5! inches

A SIMPLE FRET-SAWING MACHINE.

swing for the work which may be done in this tool." This, therefore, allows 3! inches for the width of the uprights of the inner frame and the iron slides ; from which it is to be inferred that the width as well as the thickness of the uprights of the inner frame must be 3 inches, and the thickness of the irons that form the tracks and slides, about 3-i6ths of an inch, and that they are simply screwed to the sides of the frames, and not let into them. Whatever may be the contrivance that is used for effecting the easy working of the inner frame against the sides of the outer frame, it is clear that the friction must be diminished as much as possible, and that the inner frame should work as easily as may be, and with perfect freedom from oscillation. The saw is attached to two clamps, provided for its reception. These clamps pass, one through the upper part and one through the lower part of the inner frame, bringing the saw truly perpendicular in its very centre : they are secured by nuts above and below, by which the saw may be brought to its proper tension.

The chief objection to this home-made fret-saw- ing machine is, that it is cumbersome, and takes up a great deal of room ; its chief merits are its simplicity of construction f and its cheapness. It has been described here, not so much in the belief that amateur artisans will construct one of the di- mensions given for their own use, but that they will note the principles on which it is made, and adapt them to their own requirements.

It will not be a matter of great difficulty to any ingenious amateur to do much useful work with a saw of this kind, that he might not be able to accomplish so easily in the ordinary way. For example, he would be able to cut out circular work far more easily with a machine, as described above, than with the common compass saw; for instead of sawing with one hand and steadying and holding the wood with the other, he can use both hands for guiding the wood to the saw, the foot being used as the motive power. He would also find it useful in cutting out brackets, cantilevers, etc., of more tho" ordinary -Iiickness.

38

INSECT TAXIDERMY.

INSECT TAXIDERMY.

ANY amateurs who have been accustomed to collect and preserve butterflies and moths will, without doubt, have often wished that they could hit on some method of preparing specimens of the caterpillar and chrysalis of each perfected insect, in order to show the various stages through which it has passed before arriving at the winged form in which the beautiful object which was once merely able to crawl from leaf to leaf, is at last able to flit through the air from flower to flower with a speed which, when viewed in com- parison to its former lagging pace, is as that of the hare when considered with the pace of the tortoise, or the mile a minute of the rapid locomotive viewed with the four miles an hour of the tardy carrier's van.

Readers of Amateur Work, Illustrated, who have a taste for natural history, and especially in the direction indicated, will not fail to be interested in the following remarks on the subject from, the pen of Mr. J. B. Holder, in the "Art Amateur."

" The practice of taxidermy, as applied to the pre- paration and preservation of insects, is almost unknown in this country (America). Those who have conve- nient access to the cabinets of the American Museum of Natural History in Central Park, may see there some beautiful work of this kind. An old school- teacher of Stuttgart, in Germany, prepared a large series of insects for Professor Agassiz, after whose death the specimens were transferred to the American Museum. They consist of insects of various orders, each species being illustrated by a prepared specimen of the various phases in which it appears, from the egg to the perfect form. The plant on which the insect feeds is arranged with the specimens, together with the nest that each makes. The worms are emptied of their contents and preserved with much care, showing the various stages ; many of them are of brilliant colours, and retain a very natural appearance. The cocoons and the silken or other products are also shown. In some instances spiders' nests prove to be made up of a tough and beautiful silk.

" This new art, though in its infancy, is yet within the reach of many a young amateur, and it is beyond question that a tolerable exercise of ingenuity will pro- duce such results as to claim unwonted interest, even from those scoffers who cry ' beetles ! ' and ' rocks ! ' much to the discomfiture of young naturalists. The principal manipulation is with the worms or larva;. You wish to preserve, for example, one of the great green worms that you find eating your grape-vine. Make an incision across the posterior portion, just sufficient to include the end of the alimentary canal ;

press the contents of the worm out through this open- ing, gently, and with especial care in the case of the tussock-moth worms and others that have hairy or other appendages. Though seemingly a hazardous thing to do (as respects the integrity of the specimen), yet the most delicate hairy caterpillars may be very successfully emptied of their contents. Indeed, they are by this process so cleaned internally that, practi- cally, they are skinned, and you have the skin now to deal with.

" Select a good straw, of size proportioned to the specimen ; this is to be used as a blow-pipe, and should, therefore, be a whole one, and several inches in length. Introduce the straw carefully within the cut end of the worm, and tie the end around the straw with fine silk. If the operation of squeezing has been successful, it re- mains to inflate the body for preservation. Prepare a dish of live embers, and over these hold the specimen, using great care in the degree of heat applied. While holding the worm in this way, keep it inflated. The form which the insect is to assume for the cabinet should be considered while this drying process is going on. Some light wooden frame, such as will be readily suggested to the operator, will often be of service to hold the specimen in the proper position. Some worms may require to be curved, or put into a shape charac- teristic of them while living — ' surveyors,' or ' inch- worms,' for example. Attention to these points will contribute greatly to the value and pleasing appear- ance of the specimen. The straw, after the drying, is cut off near the body, as it is convenient to allow a small portion to project outside, so that the specimen may be pinned to the cabinet through it, thus avoiding the injury that results from passing the pin through the body.

" The specimen is now complete unless we choose to adopt some method of poisoning it. Corrosive subli- mate, which is sometimes used, is likely to injure the colours. A strong arsenical solution may be applied with a brush, safely, as regards the colours. Cater- pillars prepared in this manner preserve their colour and form nearly perfect, the hairs and other appen- dages retaining a remarkably natural appearance, which, of course, enhances greatly the beauty and use- fulness of an entomological cabinet.

" An extended field is open to any who may practise this branch of taxidermy. Among the various objects that may be gathered by an insect collector some are of peculiar interest. The pine-borer (Rhagium lineatum) is found under the bark of white pine-trees, and speci- mens of its nests brought in from Central Park, and now exhibited in the cabinets of the American Museum of Natural History, show the most delicate structure. On the smooth, flat inner surface of the bark is a shallow channel, two or three inches long, cut as exactly as if

SOME ENIGMAS IN WOOD.

39

with a chisel or carpenter's gouge. This leads to a circular excavation of the same shallowness, coiled around which is a collection of fibres of bark as care- fully and exactly laid as the straws and horse-hairs in some exquisite bird's nest. In this hollow the larva lies after its labours, and undergoes the change from a wingless grub to a winged beetie, all ready to flit around the pines and deposit its eggs.

"The carpenter-bee (Xylocopci) is a remarkable insect builder, whose work is very beautiful, yet emi- nently practical. In the museum at Central Park is a piece of white pine wood, about eight inches in length, bored crossway sufficiently to admit the bee, which is about the size of the ordinary humble-bee. A channel follows at right angles to this entrance passage, and on a line with the fibres of the wood. The channel is so handsomely cut that it has the appearance of having been made with a carpenter's auger, but it is genuine insect work, recalling to mind Mercutio's

'Joiner squirrel, or old grub, Time out of mind the fairy's coach-maker.'

"The channel is about twelve inches in length. Imagine all this bitten out by the not particularly hard jaws of the carpenter-bee ! Like the joiner, the bee leaves a pile of chips or sawdust This dust is utilised, being moistened with a gluey substance secreted by the bee ; and when one egg, with its complement of pollen or honey for the forthcoming young grub, is deposited, a thin but substantial partition is constructed of this gluey mixture, completely shutting in the cavity from the air. The tunnel is divided in this manner into ten or twelve apartments, in each of which a single egg is deposited. The length of lime required to finish this work may be imagined. One naturally wonders how it will be with the first grub, seeing that it must necessarily come to active life somewhat sooner than the remainder. How does it escape ? The mother- bee unerringly provides the means by boring a side passage through which No. I, when it has burst from the egg and eaten its supply of honey, emerges from the cell, its newly-grown mandibles serving to gnaw through the barrier of dust and glue which the mother has erected. Nos. 2 to 12 inclusive come forth, each in turn, through the same passage — the last traversing the whole gallery- ere it reaches the outlet or back- door."

By his description of the method of preserving the curious and beautiful caterpillars that are, as it were, the precursors of the many-tinted moth and butterfly, and calling attention to the work of the pine- borer and carpenter-bee, Mr. Holder will doubtless have excited a desire to look more closely into the work of nature in many an amateur, which will bear good fruit when the season of the year for butterfly collecting comes round once more.

SOME ENIGMAS IN WOOD.

O those who have sufficient time on their hands to turn their attention to the manu- facture of articles whose merit lies h singularity of construction rather than i 1 utility, the following curiosities in car- pentry and joinery cannot fail to prove interesting. If any amateur artisan can make them, he will show himself to be possessed of no little ingenuity and mechanical skill ; but if he can execute the work in a workmanlike manner, and with perfect accuracy in the fitting together of various parts, he will have made good his claim to be considered a workman of no ordinary merit and capacity.

Let him take, first of all, a piece of boxwood or pearwood about the thickness of an ordinary carpen- ter's flat two-feet rule, or thereabouts, and cut in it three holes — a circle, a square, and a rectangular figure like the letter T, as shown in Fig. 1. Before making the holes, he should outline them with per- fect • accuracy on the surface of the wood, observing that the three apertures lie exactly between two parallel lines," one of which touches each perforation in and along its upper part or edge, the other touching each in and along its bottom part or